黑水: 含各种活性有机酸，如腐植酸，单宁酸等，重金属隐蔽剂，PH值缓冲剂等。具有软化水质，隐蔽重金属的作用，能够消除钙镁等碱性金属，
市面上卖的黑水大多数是浓缩性的。黑水主要成份是腐植酸,通常都是植物腐败后产生,是酸性的有机化合物。腐植酸只是其中主要的成分，还有泥煤萃取物，微量元素。较好品牌的黑水甚至会添加维他命，保护胶质，缓冲素，抗菌素及单宁酸等精华。 黑水主要的用处是在可以把水族缸里的水仿效成熱帶水域那种微酸性的水质及带有一些氨基酸，矿物质。这样能使鱼缸中的水质更趋向天然热带性水质。 黑水是酸性的，他含有organic acid 如： tanic acid, humic acid and fuvic acid。这些organic acid全都是温和性的,而且对鱼的消化系统是有帮助的。
由于黑水是酸性的，所以加入水中后可以可以稍微降低水的pH值的功效。除此之外，黑水还可以把硬度高的水质降低成软水。如果水质太硬的话，pH值是很难降低的，即使加了什么pH调整剂，把pH值降低了，但过了不久后也是会回复的。其实很多人不知道，黑水也有提供缓冲(buffer)系统的功能。所以一般灯鱼建议加黑水,就是为了调低PH并提供buffer。 黑水除了对鱼的消化系统有帮助外，因为黑水可以模仿熱帶水域里的那种大自然水质，所以可以降低鱼的紧张，让鱼可以以更快的速度来适应新环境。鱼的紧张度被降低后也可以促进繁殖。就好像繁殖斗鱼那样，可以加点黑水来促进产卵和交配。黑水也对鱼的颜色有影响。因为酸性的水质会让鱼的颜色看起来更鲜艳，尤其是红色，在酸性的水质里看起来会更红一点点。由于加了黑水后，水就会变成茶的颜色，所以鱼缸的亮度就会降低。由于在比较暗的的环境里，在我们的视觉错误下，也会感觉到红色会比较深。所以在酸性和亮度低的水质里，鱼的红色会看起来更加红的。
黑水只是适合用在一部分的淡水缸和水草缸而已，因为并不是每一种淡水鱼和水草都能符合这种水质，一般弱碱性水质的鱼类就不适合用黑水了。海水缸是不会用到的。黑水比较适合中性~到弱酸性软水的鱼类,最常用的是灯鱼和短雕。水草缸的就要注意用量了，由于黑水会降低鱼缸中的亮度，所以有些水草可能会很难吸收到灯光，这样可能会导致某些水草掛掉而让前功尽废。而且水草缸加黑水后会让藻类生生长率明显加快。所以水草缸的用户就要注意用量了。还有一点是，虽然黑水可以降低水的pH值。但是对于水草缸，黑水是发挥不了降低pH值的功能。也可以说，如果想要用黑水来降低水草缸的pH值，是不可能的。即使下降后，也会很快的又提升回来。
还有要注意的就是当你添加黑水时，活性碳最好要拿出来，不然黑水很快就会被过滤成清澈的水了。由于市面上卖的罐装黑水都不便宜，所以是不用在每次换水时再添加的。要多久才添加一次，这就要看个人的喜欢了。我只是觉得没有必要每次换水后就添加，很浪费。如果真的要省或完全免费的话，就到外头去找一种叫ketapang的枯叶吧！把它浸在缸里几天后，也会有黑水般的效果，只是没有添加什么营养剂或维他命而已。但他的功能还是一样的，可以降低pH值，释放organic acid，把水族缸里的水仿效成熱帶水域那种水质。
黑水的不良发应黑水大多数是浓缩性的。黑水主要成份是腐植酸,通常都是植物腐败后产生,是酸性的有机化合物。腐植酸只是其中主要的成分，还有泥煤萃取物，微量元素。较好品牌的黑水甚至会添加维他命，保护胶质，缓冲素，抗菌素及单宁酸等精华。)综合上述的因素,在自然界中,水是在不断的流动中,水中的腐植酸等微量元素也是在动态中振荡,在不同的温度和水流下,其构成的分子结构是较稳固的.而在我们的缸中,水温变化很少,水容量有限,加上我们的不良养殖习惯, 黑水中的化学物质较易发生分子变化,导致水质产生不良发应.间而影响鱼儿健康. 野生捕捞的鱼种,在短时间内,我们用黑水让它们适应环境,而后也要通过对水质的调节,让它们摆脱用黑水的习惯,转而适应人工环境.
黑水的配制方法取腐殖酸钠60克，溶于1000毫升蒸馏水中，搅拌均匀。然后取20克黄腐酸加少量蒸馏水稀释，然后加水至500毫升，搅拌均匀。然后将以上两种溶液混合，腐殖酸钠（碱性）或黄腐酸（酸性）调整酸碱度至6.5~7.0即可。以上是由腐殖酸钠和黄腐酸配成的缓冲液，因为暂时找不到黄腐酸，我只用腐殖酸的水溶液替代。
Tuesday, December 15, 2009
Saturday, December 12, 2009
Chlorine and Chloramines
http://www.skepticalaquarist.com/docs/water/chlorine.shtml
Chlorine and Chloramines.
The chlorine ion dissolved in water is hypochlorite (Cl2O2), the same ion as found in regular household chlorine bleach like Clorox. No anion without a cation, so hypochlorite comes to you as sodium hypochlorite. When a solution of chlorine bleach in water has entirely dried, there's no residue but a bit of common salt (taste it and see), which you might want to rinse away.
Water utilities have replaced hazardous chlorine gas (Cl2), which used to be shipped around the country in railroad tank cars, either with chlorine produced on-site by the electrolysis of salt brine, or with dry calcium or sodium hypochlorite.
If the chemistry of chlorine is mysterious and you want some basic introduction to the science of chlorine, its manufacture and its everyday uses, the Chlorine Chemistry Council website offers some material, including some more specialized studies and discussion (from the chlorine manufacturers' point-of-view of course) of some public policy issues.
AquaScience Research Group, manufacturers of a dechlorinator for aquaculture, offer another good discussion of the water chemistry of chlorine and chloramines at
Dechlorinating it is often the first concern with tapwater. Most commercial dechlorinators are based on plain sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3, a crystalline salt that generally comes pre-mixed with distilled water, usually in a 1% solution. At this strength, 10 drops (that's 0.5 cubic mm) will neutralize common municipal levels of chlorine in 10 gallons, turning the chlorine to harmless chloride ions and adding some molecules of sodium and sulfur to the water. Unreacted sodium thiosulfate that may be left over is pretty inert and harmless.
Two commercial brands that are plain sodium thiosulfate are Wardley's ChlorOut and Mardel's MarChlor.
If you needed large quantities of chlorine neutralizer, you could buy sodium thiosulfate less expensively in crystal form, directly from a manufacturer, such as Fishy Farmacy. Doc Johnson tells you how to mix up a stock solution at www.koivet.com in the "Medications" articles, under "Dechlorinator." Better get together with a few friends, because just 1 gram of crystals in distilled water makes a liter of 1% stock solution. At rates of one drop of stock solution to a gallon or two of chlorinated tapwater, that could be a lifetime's supply.
There are also sources outside the aquarium hobby, for sodium thiosulfate has other uses. It keeps down extraneous bacteria in the making of red wines; in contact with the acids in grape juice it forms sulfur dioxide. So, if you want to save money on chlorine "remover" you might want to buy it as a wine-making supply. Or as an antidote kit for cyanide poisoning, by the way! Back when amateur photographers were developing their own b/w photos, sodium thiosulfate was their "developer," and so it was cheaply available as "hypo" in any photo hobby shop. "Hypo" was short for "hyposulfite of soda" an obsolete term for Na2S2O3 . Nowadays fixatives often have additional hardening agents to toughen the coating in which the reactive silver emulsion is imbedded on the photographic paper. In other words, hypo isn't always pure sodium thiosulfate any more, so check before you use hypo as a good cheap substitute. Doc Johnson doesn't recommend it.
Before municipal water utilities in the U.S. were switching over to chloramines, I'd have suggested that you just let chlorine outgas naturally. I'm currently still able to do this with New York City's vaunted tapwater. The natural way to dechlorinate is to let the tapwater stand for twenty-four hours in jugs that offer a large water-to-air surface. I like the 6-gallon unbreakable plastic jugs Poland Spring water was delivered in til recently; they're built to be easy to grip and they're rectangular to stash close. But you might need a virgin 55gal garbage can, which you have indelibly marked in big letters "Aquarium Use Only So Dont Even Think About It." Either way, the chlorine will dissipate.
Frankly, if you have an aerator attached to your faucet, it may provide all the outgassing that's needed for a partial water change; after all, many people are using Python-type water-change hoses without trouble. And if the faucet aerator is charged with an activated carbon filter to improve the drinking water, so much the better! Fresh carbon will adsorb chlorine.
If you are impatient you could run an airline in the jug or can, but there isn't any reason to use de-chlorinator to neutralize chlorine (not chloramine), except in an emergency. Don't let anyone undermine your security about this fact. If you have any lingering doubts, borrow someone's chlorine test kit (don't buy one yourself) and test your water. Test the water that has passed through your faucet aerator. And test the water first from the tap and again after sitting still for twenty-four hours. If you insist on owning your very own chlorine test, by all means get it at the Swimming Pool Supplies section of your Home Depot. It's the very same test, using the very same chemicals, as ones that are specially packaged and specially priced for the "captive" aquarium market.
Chloramines. Chloramines offer a more aggressive treatment for maintaining some residual chlorine in tapwater. Chloramine remains more stable in the water mains than chlorine.
In areas where organic molecules in drinking water are high, chlorine tends to bind with them, even such harmless ones as humic or fulvic acids, to form trihalomethanes, which are implicated in cancer. Chlorine will bind with phenols too, if they are present, to give a foul chemical taste. Trihalomethanes could simply be adsorbed by activated charcoal at the water plant, according to the McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, "Water Treatment." But in order to be effective, activated carbon needs a slow flow that offers sustained contact with the water and frequent reactivation in a kiln. On the giant scale that's required, carbon filtration isn't practical. So instead, water boards are increasingly adding chloramines before water leaves the treatment plant, acting under pressure from the E.P.A. who lowered permissible standards for trihalomethanes in Nov 1998. "Chloramine is formed when ammonia is added to water that contains free chlorine. Depending upon the pH and the amount of ammonia, ammonia reacts to form one of three chloramine compounds. Of the three, monochloramine is the preferred compound." So says the Washington Aqueduct Chloramine Facts part of the DC Health website.
Because the chloramines are much more stable than chlorine, they maintain better residual disinfectant levels in the water mains. The stability of chloramine creates problems for fishkeepers, since these chemicals will not simply outgas in a holding can, the way chlorine does. Even exposed to sun and plentiful oxygen, Chloramine-T could still last for as long as a week.
My understanding of the DC Health site's quote is that some chloramines could as readily form in aquarium water if you were to add chlorinated water straight from the tap to a tank that already carried some free ammonia. Which chloramine formed would depend on the pH of the water, a factor which controls the interconversion of ammonia (NH3) with ammonium (NH4). Chloramine formation could only become an issue if you were using a "direct-fill" hose, and had highly-chlorinated tapwater and free ammonia in the tank.
Chloramine toxicity. Chlorine is an oxidizer, which burns a fishes' gills. Chloramines, on the other hand, pass across the gills of a fish and into its blood, where the molecule attaches to the hemoglobin, acting like nitrite to induce methemoglobinemia. The toxicity of chloramines is affected by pH, I'm reading at www.fishdoc.co.uk, with Chloramine-T more toxic at lower pH. Fish stricken by chloramine poisoning are sluggish and respire heavily. But chloramines have been inflated into a bugaboo by some packagers/distributors of various water "conditioners." Aquarium Pharmaceuticals, for instance, characterizes chloramine as "deadly" in corporate literature. Nevertheless, the not-invariably-"deadly" Chloramine-T is currently being studied by the U.S. government as potentially important to fish hatcheries in controlling bacterial gill disease. Studies at UC Davis have inspired widespread use of Chloramine-T to kill pathogenic bacteria and parasites in koi ponds. A professional assessment I trust is this from John P. Grazek: "The addition of sodium thiosulfate will neutralize both chlorine and chloramine. However, ammonia is released when the sodium thiosulfate combines with the chloramines, and this could be a problem to fish where there is little or no biological filtration." (in Aquariology: Fish Diseases and Water Chemistry, Tetra Press 1992). In chloramine, two chloride ions are bound to each ammonia molecule, and that's why you're usually advised to double the quantity of sodium thiosulfate you'd use for chlorine alone. In acidic water, the ammonia released would largely be ionized to its non-toxic form, ammonium. In a planted aquarium NH3/NH4 would be rapidly scavenged by the plants.
Chuck Gadd's clear and succinct article on ways you can deal with chlorine/chloramines is at Chuck's Planted Aquarium Pages.
Testing for chloramines. If you're testing for chloramines, make sure the test kit you've borrowed is testing for "total chlorine" or "combined chlorine," not for "free chlorine." A test for "free chlorine" would misleadingly read zero in chloraminated water.
On the other hand, when your tapwater tests positive for ammonia, this is a sign that your water is being treated with chloramines.
The Washington DC water utility offers a document "How the conversion to Chloramines affects your fish" generated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which injects a note of sobriety into this sometimes panic-inducing situation. Being a public agency, the Washington Aqueduct couldn't recommend any commercial brand, but in general they recommended four general methods for neutralizing chloramines: 1. activated carbon in filtration, 2. sodium thiosulfate, 3. commerically-available de-chloramination products ("some simply remove the chlorine, while others 'lock up' or detoxify remaining ammonia"), or 4. a chemical agent plus a biological agent ("bio-filter") to remove the ammonia. (You should already have known all this, eh?)
If you're depending on 1. filtration with granular activated carbon to break the chloramine bond, make sure the carbon is fresh and the filtration is slow. Since some ammonia is likely to be freed, one way or the other, you have an additional incentive to de-chloraminate before you add water to the aquarium.
If you're de-chloraminating as in 3. with commercial products, it's useful to know that Ammo-Lock2 (Aquarium Pharmaceuticals) and AmQuel (Kordon) each react with the ammonia to form non-toxic, inert, moderately stable substances. With these products, the ammonia is bound, but not actually removed. It does remain available to the nitrifying bacteria, I understand; that's an important consideration. Each company presents a clear un-hyped analysis of its product, Kordon at www.kordon.com and Aquarium Pharmaceuticals at www.aquariumpharm.com
Chlorine and Chloramines.
The chlorine ion dissolved in water is hypochlorite (Cl2O2), the same ion as found in regular household chlorine bleach like Clorox. No anion without a cation, so hypochlorite comes to you as sodium hypochlorite. When a solution of chlorine bleach in water has entirely dried, there's no residue but a bit of common salt (taste it and see), which you might want to rinse away.
Water utilities have replaced hazardous chlorine gas (Cl2), which used to be shipped around the country in railroad tank cars, either with chlorine produced on-site by the electrolysis of salt brine, or with dry calcium or sodium hypochlorite.
If the chemistry of chlorine is mysterious and you want some basic introduction to the science of chlorine, its manufacture and its everyday uses, the Chlorine Chemistry Council website offers some material, including some more specialized studies and discussion (from the chlorine manufacturers' point-of-view of course) of some public policy issues.
AquaScience Research Group, manufacturers of a dechlorinator for aquaculture, offer another good discussion of the water chemistry of chlorine and chloramines at
Dechlorinating it is often the first concern with tapwater. Most commercial dechlorinators are based on plain sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3, a crystalline salt that generally comes pre-mixed with distilled water, usually in a 1% solution. At this strength, 10 drops (that's 0.5 cubic mm) will neutralize common municipal levels of chlorine in 10 gallons, turning the chlorine to harmless chloride ions and adding some molecules of sodium and sulfur to the water. Unreacted sodium thiosulfate that may be left over is pretty inert and harmless.
Two commercial brands that are plain sodium thiosulfate are Wardley's ChlorOut and Mardel's MarChlor.
If you needed large quantities of chlorine neutralizer, you could buy sodium thiosulfate less expensively in crystal form, directly from a manufacturer, such as Fishy Farmacy. Doc Johnson tells you how to mix up a stock solution at www.koivet.com in the "Medications" articles, under "Dechlorinator." Better get together with a few friends, because just 1 gram of crystals in distilled water makes a liter of 1% stock solution. At rates of one drop of stock solution to a gallon or two of chlorinated tapwater, that could be a lifetime's supply.
There are also sources outside the aquarium hobby, for sodium thiosulfate has other uses. It keeps down extraneous bacteria in the making of red wines; in contact with the acids in grape juice it forms sulfur dioxide. So, if you want to save money on chlorine "remover" you might want to buy it as a wine-making supply. Or as an antidote kit for cyanide poisoning, by the way! Back when amateur photographers were developing their own b/w photos, sodium thiosulfate was their "developer," and so it was cheaply available as "hypo" in any photo hobby shop. "Hypo" was short for "hyposulfite of soda" an obsolete term for Na2S2O3 . Nowadays fixatives often have additional hardening agents to toughen the coating in which the reactive silver emulsion is imbedded on the photographic paper. In other words, hypo isn't always pure sodium thiosulfate any more, so check before you use hypo as a good cheap substitute. Doc Johnson doesn't recommend it.
Before municipal water utilities in the U.S. were switching over to chloramines, I'd have suggested that you just let chlorine outgas naturally. I'm currently still able to do this with New York City's vaunted tapwater. The natural way to dechlorinate is to let the tapwater stand for twenty-four hours in jugs that offer a large water-to-air surface. I like the 6-gallon unbreakable plastic jugs Poland Spring water was delivered in til recently; they're built to be easy to grip and they're rectangular to stash close. But you might need a virgin 55gal garbage can, which you have indelibly marked in big letters "Aquarium Use Only So Dont Even Think About It." Either way, the chlorine will dissipate.
Frankly, if you have an aerator attached to your faucet, it may provide all the outgassing that's needed for a partial water change; after all, many people are using Python-type water-change hoses without trouble. And if the faucet aerator is charged with an activated carbon filter to improve the drinking water, so much the better! Fresh carbon will adsorb chlorine.
If you are impatient you could run an airline in the jug or can, but there isn't any reason to use de-chlorinator to neutralize chlorine (not chloramine), except in an emergency. Don't let anyone undermine your security about this fact. If you have any lingering doubts, borrow someone's chlorine test kit (don't buy one yourself) and test your water. Test the water that has passed through your faucet aerator. And test the water first from the tap and again after sitting still for twenty-four hours. If you insist on owning your very own chlorine test, by all means get it at the Swimming Pool Supplies section of your Home Depot. It's the very same test, using the very same chemicals, as ones that are specially packaged and specially priced for the "captive" aquarium market.
Chloramines. Chloramines offer a more aggressive treatment for maintaining some residual chlorine in tapwater. Chloramine remains more stable in the water mains than chlorine.
In areas where organic molecules in drinking water are high, chlorine tends to bind with them, even such harmless ones as humic or fulvic acids, to form trihalomethanes, which are implicated in cancer. Chlorine will bind with phenols too, if they are present, to give a foul chemical taste. Trihalomethanes could simply be adsorbed by activated charcoal at the water plant, according to the McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, "Water Treatment." But in order to be effective, activated carbon needs a slow flow that offers sustained contact with the water and frequent reactivation in a kiln. On the giant scale that's required, carbon filtration isn't practical. So instead, water boards are increasingly adding chloramines before water leaves the treatment plant, acting under pressure from the E.P.A. who lowered permissible standards for trihalomethanes in Nov 1998. "Chloramine is formed when ammonia is added to water that contains free chlorine. Depending upon the pH and the amount of ammonia, ammonia reacts to form one of three chloramine compounds. Of the three, monochloramine is the preferred compound." So says the Washington Aqueduct Chloramine Facts part of the DC Health website.
Because the chloramines are much more stable than chlorine, they maintain better residual disinfectant levels in the water mains. The stability of chloramine creates problems for fishkeepers, since these chemicals will not simply outgas in a holding can, the way chlorine does. Even exposed to sun and plentiful oxygen, Chloramine-T could still last for as long as a week.
My understanding of the DC Health site's quote is that some chloramines could as readily form in aquarium water if you were to add chlorinated water straight from the tap to a tank that already carried some free ammonia. Which chloramine formed would depend on the pH of the water, a factor which controls the interconversion of ammonia (NH3) with ammonium (NH4). Chloramine formation could only become an issue if you were using a "direct-fill" hose, and had highly-chlorinated tapwater and free ammonia in the tank.
Chloramine toxicity. Chlorine is an oxidizer, which burns a fishes' gills. Chloramines, on the other hand, pass across the gills of a fish and into its blood, where the molecule attaches to the hemoglobin, acting like nitrite to induce methemoglobinemia. The toxicity of chloramines is affected by pH, I'm reading at www.fishdoc.co.uk, with Chloramine-T more toxic at lower pH. Fish stricken by chloramine poisoning are sluggish and respire heavily. But chloramines have been inflated into a bugaboo by some packagers/distributors of various water "conditioners." Aquarium Pharmaceuticals, for instance, characterizes chloramine as "deadly" in corporate literature. Nevertheless, the not-invariably-"deadly" Chloramine-T is currently being studied by the U.S. government as potentially important to fish hatcheries in controlling bacterial gill disease. Studies at UC Davis have inspired widespread use of Chloramine-T to kill pathogenic bacteria and parasites in koi ponds. A professional assessment I trust is this from John P. Grazek: "The addition of sodium thiosulfate will neutralize both chlorine and chloramine. However, ammonia is released when the sodium thiosulfate combines with the chloramines, and this could be a problem to fish where there is little or no biological filtration." (in Aquariology: Fish Diseases and Water Chemistry, Tetra Press 1992). In chloramine, two chloride ions are bound to each ammonia molecule, and that's why you're usually advised to double the quantity of sodium thiosulfate you'd use for chlorine alone. In acidic water, the ammonia released would largely be ionized to its non-toxic form, ammonium. In a planted aquarium NH3/NH4 would be rapidly scavenged by the plants.
Chuck Gadd's clear and succinct article on ways you can deal with chlorine/chloramines is at Chuck's Planted Aquarium Pages.
Testing for chloramines. If you're testing for chloramines, make sure the test kit you've borrowed is testing for "total chlorine" or "combined chlorine," not for "free chlorine." A test for "free chlorine" would misleadingly read zero in chloraminated water.
On the other hand, when your tapwater tests positive for ammonia, this is a sign that your water is being treated with chloramines.
The Washington DC water utility offers a document "How the conversion to Chloramines affects your fish" generated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which injects a note of sobriety into this sometimes panic-inducing situation. Being a public agency, the Washington Aqueduct couldn't recommend any commercial brand, but in general they recommended four general methods for neutralizing chloramines: 1. activated carbon in filtration, 2. sodium thiosulfate, 3. commerically-available de-chloramination products ("some simply remove the chlorine, while others 'lock up' or detoxify remaining ammonia"), or 4. a chemical agent plus a biological agent ("bio-filter") to remove the ammonia. (You should already have known all this, eh?)
If you're depending on 1. filtration with granular activated carbon to break the chloramine bond, make sure the carbon is fresh and the filtration is slow. Since some ammonia is likely to be freed, one way or the other, you have an additional incentive to de-chloraminate before you add water to the aquarium.
If you're de-chloraminating as in 3. with commercial products, it's useful to know that Ammo-Lock2 (Aquarium Pharmaceuticals) and AmQuel (Kordon) each react with the ammonia to form non-toxic, inert, moderately stable substances. With these products, the ammonia is bound, but not actually removed. It does remain available to the nitrifying bacteria, I understand; that's an important consideration. Each company presents a clear un-hyped analysis of its product, Kordon at www.kordon.com and Aquarium Pharmaceuticals at www.aquariumpharm.com
Monday, December 7, 2009
Becareful with Chloramines in Tap Water
Chloramine is a disinfectant put into many municipal water supplies. In recent years it has often replaced chlorine for two main reasons. The first is that it is much longer lasting, so it continues to provide a disinfectant action in supply pipes, where chlorine typically loses its capacity to disinfect. The second is that it does not react with organics nearly as readily as does chlorine. The reaction products of chlorine and organics (chlorinated organics) are very toxic to people, and water supply operators elect to use chloramine to reduce this toxicity.
Unfortunately for aquarists, dealing with chloramine in tap water is not as easy as dealing with chlorine. The chlorine in tap water can be eliminated just by letting the water sit for a few days prior to use. This is not the case for chloramine, and aquarists MUST take active steps to eliminate it.
This article describes what chloramine is, what it does that is a problem in aquaria, how to test for it, and how to rid water of chloramine. It also reports on a survey study of aquarists using reverse osmosis/deionization systems (RO/DI) for purification of their water. There has recently been considerable concern and debate over whether such systems will adequately remove chloramine in all normal circumstances, even among manufacturers and distributors of such systems. The results of the survey described here will help aquarists understand how effective such systems are at removing chloramine.
What is Chlorine?
Before beginning to discuss what chloramine is, understanding chlorine is useful. Chlorine, as Cl2, is a greenish yellow gas at room temperature. It is sometimes used as a disinfectant in water supplies, and it is also used to make chloramine, as described below. When dissolved in water, it forms dissolved Cl2, and it also reacts with water to form HOCl (hypochlorous acid; pKa = 7.5), and HCl (hydrochloric acid). The HOCl and HCl will also dissociate into H+, Cl-, and OCl- (hypochlorite), with the extent of dissociation depending on pH.
Cl2 + H2O à HOCl + H+ + Cl-
Since chlorine and hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite are in equilibrium in water, it doesn't really matter which ones are added to attain a disinfectant medium. So, for example, one can add chlorine gas, hypochlorous acid, or hypochlorite, and attain similar results. In fact, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
"The term free residual chlorine most accurately refers to elemental chlorine, hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite ion (OCl-)."
In light of that, many water supplies (including the Massachusetts Water Resources (MWRA) that serves my area)1 choose to use sodium hypochlorite (bleach, NaOCl) to provide this same OCl- as the primary disinfectant.
What is Chloramine?
Chloramine is formed through the reaction of dissolved chlorine gas (forming hypochlorous acid) and ammonia in tap water. Chloramine is a term that actually describes several related compounds: monochloramine NH2Cl (Figure 1), dichloramine, NHCl2 and trichloramine, NCl3:
NH3 (ammonia) + HOCl à NH2Cl (monochloramine) + H2O
NH2Cl + HOCl à NHCl2 (dichloramine) + H2O
NHCl2 + HOCl à NCl3 (trichloramine) + H2O
The predominate form in most water supplies (where the pH is 7 or above) is monochloramine, and that form will be chosen for most discussions in the remainder of this article. and that form will be assumed to exist in the remainder of this article. Nevertheless, water supplies may contain mixtures of these compounds, and the exact proportions of the various species present depend on the pH and the relative concentrations of chlorine and ammonia when reacted.
How much chloramine is used by water supplies varies quite a bit. In the case of the water that I use, for example, the MWRA uses chlorine for primary disinfection (via sodium hypochlorite), and then later uses chloramine to provide lasting disinfection as it is sent into pipes.1 In the latter case, the amount of chloramine added may not be as high as if it were used for the primary disinfection. Most aquarists in the greater Boston area (including myself) found chloramine levels of less than 0.5 ppm-Cl in their tap water when tested at a recent Boston Reefers Society function. Elswhere, however, chloramine levels can be significantly higher, ranging up to several ppm-Cl. The maximum allowed by the EPA is 4 ppm-Cl , and some water supplies target 2-4 ppm-Cl . The amount seen at the tap will also depend on distance from the treatment plant, and how long the water has been sitting in pipes.
A note on concentration units. In this article (and in links to the EPA and other sites), all concentrations are given as ppm-Cl. That means ppm of chlorine mass, regardless of what form the chlorine is in. It is analogous to units of NO3-N (nitrate nitrogen) that are often used for nitrogen species. That complication is necessary since the various chloramines may be present as mixtures, and it also facilitates comparison to chlorine and other oxidants. So 1 mg/l of monochloramine would be reported as 0.69 ppm-Cl of monochloramine because the chlorine comprises 69% of the mass of monochloramine. The unit does not imply that there is any free chlorine present.
Toxicity of Chloramine to Marine Organisms
The great majority of reported toxicity tests involving chloramine use freshwater organisms. Nevertheless, there is adequate testing reported for a variety of marine organisms to know that it is very toxic to such organisms.2-7 A complication in marine systems is that chloramine and chlorine react with substances in seawater, forming other reactive chlorine species. In the case of chlorine, these are often simply referred to as chlorine-produced oxidants (CPOs). For example, monochloramine is known to react with bromide in seawater over a period of hours to form bromochloramine (Br-NH-Cl).8 Consequently, identifying the exact species causing toxicity is often difficult.
What is the mechanism of toxicity? The mechanism has not been established for many invertebrates, but in fish the mechanism is well known. Chloramine passes through the gills of fish and enters the blood stream. There, it reacts with hemoglobin, forming methemoglobin. In fathead minnows (Pimephales primelas) exposed to 1 ppm-Cl of monochloramine, for example, about 30% of the hemoglobin is converted into methemoglobin. The fish then suffer from anoxia (low oxygen in their tissues) because they have lost some of their hemoglobin, which is responsible for carrying oxygen in the blood.9
While knowing the exact species causing the toxicity is important to physiologists studying the phenomenon, it is not so important to aquarists. The important thing that aquarists need to know is how low the concentration needs to be before toxicity is not displayed by any organisms that are present in the aquarium. Most toxicity tests are designed with unmistakable upper endpoints, often death. Table 1, for example, shows the concentration that kills half of the exposed individuals in a few days, called the LD50.
In its assessment of chloramine toxicity to marine invertebrates, Environment Canada (the Canadian equivalent of the United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA) determined the Estimated No-Effects Value (ENEV) based on this type of data to be 0.002 ppm-Cl for marine and estuarine environments.
How much chloramine should one allow into an aquarium? That, of course, depends on what is in the aquarium. In the absence of knowing the toxicity of chloramine to every inhabitant of the aquarium (or of even knowing the identity of every inhabitant), it seems prudent to have chloramine levels far below those where the most sensitive organisms are killed, and that chloramine concentration is somewhere well below 0.005 ppm-Cl. The value suggested by Environment Canada seems like a reasonable maximum.
There is, however, substantial uncertainty in deciding exactly which levels are acceptable and which are not, since there is so little data available. Perhaps the acceptable levels for daily exposures during the entire lifetime of an organism needs to be even lower than this value. After all, some organisms live quite a long time, and presumably we are interested in preventing all toxicity, not just death. It is apparent from the data in Table 1 that the longer the exposure, the lower the toxic levels become. In the end, we are limited by the available data and also by the ability of aquarists to measure chloramine itself.
This target of 0.005 ppm-Cl or less does not necessarily imply that all water used for aquaria must be that low. For example, an aquarium that tops off 2% of the tank volume daily (to replace evaporated water) will not have a chloramine concentration equal to the top off water. It will, however, have fresh chloramine added every day. Even if the chloramine added each day is broken down in the aquarium before the next addition (something that is likely, but not demonstrated for aquaria), then if the top off water contained 4 ppm chloramine, the aquarium would be boosted to 0.08 ppm every day. That level appears to be well above the danger zone for many invertebrates. Consequently, aquarists need to be aware of the chloramine levels in water that they use to replace evaporated water. Similar, and even more stringent, concerns would apply to water used for water changes or in setting up a new aquarium.
Measuring Chloramine
There are many kits suitable for measuring chloramine, with varying limits of detection. Many are not suitable for testing the low levels necessary for reef aquaria. The kit that I prefer for measuring low levels of chloramine is the Hach CN-70 (part # 1454200). It is capable of measuring total chlorine and free chlorine. Chloramine is found by the difference between these two values. It has a low range scale that runs from 0 to 0.7 ppm, and a high range that runs from 0 to 3.5 ppm. The low range can detect 0.01 ppm chloramine. It costs about $64 (with shipping) and is good for many tests. The colorimetric kit is very easy to use: reagent is mixed with the water to be tested and compared to a color wheel.
Removing Chloramine From Water: Chemical Reducing Agents
There are two primary ways to remove chloramine from tap water. The first is through the use of inorganic reducing agents such as thiosulfate. Thiosulfate (S2O3- -, which actually looks like -OSO2S-) is an inorganic chemical that is typically dissolved in water, usually as the sodium salt. When added to water containing chloramine, a reaction takes place, destroying the chloramine. The electrochemistry of sulfur compounds can be complicated, and different researchers report different products of this reaction (extrapolated from reactions with chlorine itself, not chloramine). The products have been suggested to include sulfate (SO4- - and HSO4-),10,14 elemental sulfur (S),10 and tetrathionate (S4O6- -),11-13 and may depend to some extent on the conditions, including the pH and the relative amounts of compounds present. John F. Kuhns (inventor of Amquel below) has indicated that he believes that the reaction resulting in sulfate is the most frequently observed. The reaction for this process is shown below:
S2O3-- + 4NH2Cl + 5H2O à 2SO4-- + 2H+ + 4HCl + 4NH3
Thiosulfate is also equally suited to dechlorinating free chlorine in water, and it has gained wide use in marine and freshwater aquaria. Unfortunately, the ammonia that is produced as a result of the reaction is still toxic. Consequently, thiosulfate alone is not always adequate for eliminating toxicity from chloramine.
Other products, such as hydroxymethanesulfonate (HOCH2SO3-; a known ammonia binder15 patented for aquarium uses by John F. Kuhns16 (sold as Amquel by Kordon and ClorAm-X by Reed Mariculture, among others) can be used to treat chloraminated water because they both break down chloramine and bind up the ammonia.
The reaction of ammonia with hydroxymethanesulfonate is mechanistically complicated, possibly involving decomposition to formaldehyde and reformation to the product (aminomethanesulfonate; shown below).15 The simplified overall reaction is believed to be:
NH3 + HOCH2SO3- à H2NCH2SO3- + H2O
Even more complicated is the reaction of hydroxymethanesulfonate with chloramine, or chlorine (as Cl2 or HOCl). In this case, the products that are formed have not been established.
So are these useful products? That is, do they eliminate all toxicity from chloramine and provide none of their own, either by themselves or through their degradation products? I cannot answer that question. Almost certainly, using them is better than not using them if there is chloramine in the water. Is the toxicity eliminated for even the most sensitive larval invertebrates? Again, I don't know. Without knowing what the degradation products are, or without detailed testing on a variety of very sensitive invertebrates, I don't know how one would conclude that they are satisfactory (or not). Maybe such tests exist, and if so, I'd be pleased to hear of them. In the end, my recommendation is to remove chlorine and chloramine in other ways, such as through an RO/DI system as described below.
Removing Chloramine From Water: Activated Carbon
Another method for removing chloramine from water is with activated carbon (as is contained in most RO/DI systems). In a two step process, the carbon catalytically breaks the chloramine down into ammonia, chloride, and nitrogen gas
C + NH2Cl + H2O à C-O + NH3 + Cl- + H+
C-O + 2NH2Cl à C + N2 + 2Cl- + 2H+ + H2O
where C stands for the activated carbon, and C-O stands for oxidized activated carbon. In this case, as was found for thiosulfate, the product includes ammonia, which is not bound significantly by activated carbon. Consequently, treatment of water with activated carbon will need to be followed up by some method of eliminating the ammonia.
In the case of a reverse osmosis/deionizing system (where carbon is usually part of the prefiltration prior to the RO membrane), the ammonia is partially removed by the reverse osmosis system. The extent of removal by the RO membrane depends on pH. At pH 7.5 or lower, reverse osmosis will remove ammonia from 1.4 ppm-Cl monochloramine to less than 0.1 ppm ammonia. The DI resin then removes any residual ammonia to levels unimportant to an aquarist.
Removing Chloramine With Activated Carbon: Does it Really Work?
There has been much debate over whether commercial RO/DI systems used by aquarists are actually removing chloramine in adequate quantity. The concern is not whether they can theoretically do so, but whether the actual units allow sufficient contact time between the water and the activated carbon for the units to do an adequate job.
I have been using a Spectrapure RO/DI system (CSP25DI) for years, and my water does contain chloramine, so naturally I was interested to know if it was up to the task. In discussing the issue with Charles Mitsis, President of Spectrapure, he said that my water was among the most difficult to successfully remove chloramine from because the pH was high, and he was not sure that the unit was adequate. The reasons for being concerned were that:
1. Monochloramine is the most difficult of the three chloramine species to remove because it is small (allowing it to pass through a reverse osmosis membrane).
2. Monochloramine is the most chemically stable of the chloramine species, so is the hardest to break down (as on activated carbon).
3. Monochloramine predominates over the other forms in tap water at pH above 7 (dichloramine predominates at pH 4-7).
4. The pores of the activated carbon may become plugged with sediment over time, reducing the effectiveness of the carbon at breaking apart chloramine.
5. At high pH, the pores of the RO membrane can swell, resulting in poorer rejection of impurities.
With this as the backdrop, I set about organizing a round of testing by aquarists to see if their commercially-available systems were adequately removing chloramine.
First, I selected a single, high quality test method for participants to use: the Hach CN-70 kit described above. I then asked aquarists to test several things:
1. The free and total chlorine in their tap water after letting it run for a while.
2. The free and total chlorine in their RO reject water.
3. The free and total chlorine in their finished RO/DI water.
4. The pH of the tap water.
In my case, for example, I had the following results:
Tap water:
pH ~9
Total Chlorine: 0.4-0.5 ppm one day, 0.08 ppm on a second day.
Free chlorine: <0.01 ppm (effectively all of the total chlorine was chloramine)
RO Reject water:
Total Chlorine: 0.02 ppm
Free chlorine: <0.01 ppm
Final RO/DI water:
Total Chlorine: <0.01 ppm
Consequently, within the capabilities of the Hach test kit (0.01 ppm), there is no chloramine getting through the system. A small amount does appear to get past the carbon to the RO waste water, but it does not get through the RO membrane and DI resin.
A similar set of data (more or less complete) was collected from about 20 aquarists in different parts of the country. These included systems that were stated to have a capacity of 25-100 gallons per day, the higher volume systems being especially interesting because the contact time with the carbon might be shorter. All but one had similar results to those reported here. The anomalous report produced the following results:
Tap Water:
pH 8.2
Total Chlorine: >3.5 ppm
Free Chlorine: >3.5 ppm
Filtered Tap Water: (single cartridge under sink, cold water side)
Total Chlorine: 0.7 ppm
Free Chlorine: 0.38 ppm
RO water: (11 month old cartridges)
Total Chlorine: 0.16 ppm
Free Chlorine: 0.06 ppm
RO/DI water: (11 month old cartridges)
Total Chlorine: 0.04 ppm
Free Chlorine: 0.02 ppm
RO/DI water: (Fresh cartridges)
Total Chlorine: <0.01 ppm
Free Chlorine: <0.01 ppm
In short, his tap water chloramine (and chlorine) levels were quite high. His old carbon and sediment cartridges were not quite up to the task, but when replaced, were adequate to remove all of the chloramine. Note that the 11 month old cartridges were still producing 0-1 ppm TDS RO/DI water.
Lessons Learned and Suggestions:
1. Most RO/DI systems seem capable of removing chloramine adequately for aquarists.
2. The carbon cartridge may become less useful over time, and it is possible that the chloramine removal effectiveness of a system may be lost before the DI appears to need changing.
3. Cheap sediment cartridges may expose the carbon cartridge to unnecessary fouling, which may permit chloramine to pass through the system. Cartridges should be replaced as soon as the pressure drops significantly, even if RO/DI water is still being produced at a reasonable rate or purity as measured by total dissolved solids.
4. Testing for chlorine and chloramine is easy, so any concern is easily reconciled.
5. One Hach kit provides several dozen test results. Our local Boston Club bought some kits and had a "water testing day." The kits can also become part of the "library" of a local club for aquarists to use once in a while to see if their systems are functioning. That way, the cost to each aquarist is minimal.
Conclusions
Chloramine in tap water should be a significant concern to aquarists. Its peculiar properties make it well suited to disinfection of water supplies, but also make it a potential toxin in aquaria. In order to render the water safe for use, aquarists need to use one of two systems for purification: an inorganic reducing agent combined with an additive that binds ammonia (or a single product that does both), or an RO/DI system. Chloramine is toxic enough that it would seem prudent for aquarists to spend the time and money necessary to ensure that they do not unduly stress their organisms. This activity includes setting up appropriate purification systems, and may also include testing the water to ensure that those systems are functioning properly.
Happy Reefing!
If you have any questions about this article, please visit my author forum on Reef Central.
References:
1. Corrosion control and chloramination, discolored water and nitrification. Sung, Windsor. MWRA, Southborough, MA, USA. Proceedings - Water Quality Technology Conference (2002), 1683-1686.
2. Toxicological significance of the chemical reactions of aqueous chlorine and chloramine. Scully, F. E.; Mazina, K.; Sonenshire, D. E.; Ringhand, H. P. Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, VA, USA. Avail. NTIS. Report (1988), (EPA/600/D-88/012; Order No. PB88-160270), 14 pp.
3. Acute toxicity of chlorine-produced oxidants (CPO) to the marine invertebrates Amphiporeia virginiana and Eohaustorius washingtonianus. Wan, M. T.; Van Aggelen, G.; Cheng, W.; Watts, R. G. Environmental Protection Branch, Environment Canada, North Vancouver, BC, Can. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (2000), 64(2), 205-212.
4. Effects of residual chlorine on estuarine organisms. Bender, M. E.; Roberts, M. H.; Diaz, R.; Huggett, R. J. Virginia Inst. Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, VA, USA. Pollution Engineering and Technology (1977), 5(Biofouling Control Proced.: Technol. Ecol. Eff.), 101-8.
5. Chlorinated cooling waters in the marine environment: development of effluent guidelines. Capuzzo, Judith M.; Goldman, Joel C.; Davidson, John A.; Lawrence, Sarah A. Woods Hole Oceanogr. Inst., Woods Hole, MA, USA. Marine Pollution Bulletin (1977), 8(7), 161-3.
6. Combined toxicity of free chlorine, chloramine and temperature to stage I larvae of the American lobster Homarus americanus. Capuzzo, Judith M.; Lawrence, Sarah A.; Davidson, John A. Woods Hole Oceanogr. Inst., Woods Hole, MA, USA. Water Research (1976), 10(12), 1093-9.
7. The effects of free chlorine and chloramine on growth and respiration rates of larval lobsters (Homarus americanus). Capuzzo, Judith M. Woods Hole Oceanogr. Inst., Woods Hole, MA, USA. Water Research (1977), 11(12), 1021-4.
8. Kinetics of monochloramine decomposition in the presence of bromide. Trofe, Timothy W.; Inman, Guy W., Jr.; Johnson, J. Donald. Sch. Public Health, Univ. North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA. Environmental Science and Technology (1980), 14(5), 544-9.
9. Chlorine-induced mortality in fish. Grothe, Donald R.; Eaton, John W. Dep. Ecol. Behav. Biol., Univ. Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society (1975), 104(4), 800-2.
10. Dose of Thiosulfate needed in dechlorination of water. Al'terman, N. A. Med Inst., Stalinsk, gigiena I Sanitariya (1958), 23(No 6), 66-7.
11. Composition and method for removing chloramine from water containing same. Gergely; Anthony J.; Nichols; Ralph A. (Jungle Laboratories Corp., USA) US Patent 4,554,261; November 19, 1985.
12. The reactions between bleaching powder and thiosulfate in the purification of potable water. Strunk, H. Veroeff. a. d. Militaersanitaelsw. (1914), 28.
13. A study of analysis errors caused by nitrite and free available chlorine during iodometric titration of total residual chlorine in wastewater. Dietz, Edward A., Jr.; Cortellucci, Remi; Williams, Mary. USA. Water Environment Research (1996), 68(6), 974-980.
14. A potentiometric study of the reaction between halogen solutions and sodium thiosulfate. del Fresno, C.; Valdes, L. Anales soc. espan. fis. quim. (1936), 34 813-17.
15. Mechanism of the reaction of ammonia with the bisulfite derivative of formaldehyde. Henaff, Philippe Le. Compt. Rend. (1963), 256 3090-2.
16. Method and Product for removal of chloramines, chlorine, and ammonia from aquaculture water. Kuhns, John F. US Patent #4,666,610; May 19, 1987.
Unfortunately for aquarists, dealing with chloramine in tap water is not as easy as dealing with chlorine. The chlorine in tap water can be eliminated just by letting the water sit for a few days prior to use. This is not the case for chloramine, and aquarists MUST take active steps to eliminate it.
This article describes what chloramine is, what it does that is a problem in aquaria, how to test for it, and how to rid water of chloramine. It also reports on a survey study of aquarists using reverse osmosis/deionization systems (RO/DI) for purification of their water. There has recently been considerable concern and debate over whether such systems will adequately remove chloramine in all normal circumstances, even among manufacturers and distributors of such systems. The results of the survey described here will help aquarists understand how effective such systems are at removing chloramine.
What is Chlorine?
Before beginning to discuss what chloramine is, understanding chlorine is useful. Chlorine, as Cl2, is a greenish yellow gas at room temperature. It is sometimes used as a disinfectant in water supplies, and it is also used to make chloramine, as described below. When dissolved in water, it forms dissolved Cl2, and it also reacts with water to form HOCl (hypochlorous acid; pKa = 7.5), and HCl (hydrochloric acid). The HOCl and HCl will also dissociate into H+, Cl-, and OCl- (hypochlorite), with the extent of dissociation depending on pH.
Cl2 + H2O à HOCl + H+ + Cl-
Since chlorine and hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite are in equilibrium in water, it doesn't really matter which ones are added to attain a disinfectant medium. So, for example, one can add chlorine gas, hypochlorous acid, or hypochlorite, and attain similar results. In fact, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
"The term free residual chlorine most accurately refers to elemental chlorine, hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite ion (OCl-)."
In light of that, many water supplies (including the Massachusetts Water Resources (MWRA) that serves my area)1 choose to use sodium hypochlorite (bleach, NaOCl) to provide this same OCl- as the primary disinfectant.
What is Chloramine?
Chloramine is formed through the reaction of dissolved chlorine gas (forming hypochlorous acid) and ammonia in tap water. Chloramine is a term that actually describes several related compounds: monochloramine NH2Cl (Figure 1), dichloramine, NHCl2 and trichloramine, NCl3:
NH3 (ammonia) + HOCl à NH2Cl (monochloramine) + H2O
NH2Cl + HOCl à NHCl2 (dichloramine) + H2O
NHCl2 + HOCl à NCl3 (trichloramine) + H2O
The predominate form in most water supplies (where the pH is 7 or above) is monochloramine, and that form will be chosen for most discussions in the remainder of this article. and that form will be assumed to exist in the remainder of this article. Nevertheless, water supplies may contain mixtures of these compounds, and the exact proportions of the various species present depend on the pH and the relative concentrations of chlorine and ammonia when reacted.
How much chloramine is used by water supplies varies quite a bit. In the case of the water that I use, for example, the MWRA uses chlorine for primary disinfection (via sodium hypochlorite), and then later uses chloramine to provide lasting disinfection as it is sent into pipes.1 In the latter case, the amount of chloramine added may not be as high as if it were used for the primary disinfection. Most aquarists in the greater Boston area (including myself) found chloramine levels of less than 0.5 ppm-Cl in their tap water when tested at a recent Boston Reefers Society function. Elswhere, however, chloramine levels can be significantly higher, ranging up to several ppm-Cl. The maximum allowed by the EPA is 4 ppm-Cl , and some water supplies target 2-4 ppm-Cl . The amount seen at the tap will also depend on distance from the treatment plant, and how long the water has been sitting in pipes.
A note on concentration units. In this article (and in links to the EPA and other sites), all concentrations are given as ppm-Cl. That means ppm of chlorine mass, regardless of what form the chlorine is in. It is analogous to units of NO3-N (nitrate nitrogen) that are often used for nitrogen species. That complication is necessary since the various chloramines may be present as mixtures, and it also facilitates comparison to chlorine and other oxidants. So 1 mg/l of monochloramine would be reported as 0.69 ppm-Cl of monochloramine because the chlorine comprises 69% of the mass of monochloramine. The unit does not imply that there is any free chlorine present.
Toxicity of Chloramine to Marine Organisms
The great majority of reported toxicity tests involving chloramine use freshwater organisms. Nevertheless, there is adequate testing reported for a variety of marine organisms to know that it is very toxic to such organisms.2-7 A complication in marine systems is that chloramine and chlorine react with substances in seawater, forming other reactive chlorine species. In the case of chlorine, these are often simply referred to as chlorine-produced oxidants (CPOs). For example, monochloramine is known to react with bromide in seawater over a period of hours to form bromochloramine (Br-NH-Cl).8 Consequently, identifying the exact species causing toxicity is often difficult.
What is the mechanism of toxicity? The mechanism has not been established for many invertebrates, but in fish the mechanism is well known. Chloramine passes through the gills of fish and enters the blood stream. There, it reacts with hemoglobin, forming methemoglobin. In fathead minnows (Pimephales primelas) exposed to 1 ppm-Cl of monochloramine, for example, about 30% of the hemoglobin is converted into methemoglobin. The fish then suffer from anoxia (low oxygen in their tissues) because they have lost some of their hemoglobin, which is responsible for carrying oxygen in the blood.9
While knowing the exact species causing the toxicity is important to physiologists studying the phenomenon, it is not so important to aquarists. The important thing that aquarists need to know is how low the concentration needs to be before toxicity is not displayed by any organisms that are present in the aquarium. Most toxicity tests are designed with unmistakable upper endpoints, often death. Table 1, for example, shows the concentration that kills half of the exposed individuals in a few days, called the LD50.
In its assessment of chloramine toxicity to marine invertebrates, Environment Canada (the Canadian equivalent of the United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA) determined the Estimated No-Effects Value (ENEV) based on this type of data to be 0.002 ppm-Cl for marine and estuarine environments.
How much chloramine should one allow into an aquarium? That, of course, depends on what is in the aquarium. In the absence of knowing the toxicity of chloramine to every inhabitant of the aquarium (or of even knowing the identity of every inhabitant), it seems prudent to have chloramine levels far below those where the most sensitive organisms are killed, and that chloramine concentration is somewhere well below 0.005 ppm-Cl. The value suggested by Environment Canada seems like a reasonable maximum.
There is, however, substantial uncertainty in deciding exactly which levels are acceptable and which are not, since there is so little data available. Perhaps the acceptable levels for daily exposures during the entire lifetime of an organism needs to be even lower than this value. After all, some organisms live quite a long time, and presumably we are interested in preventing all toxicity, not just death. It is apparent from the data in Table 1 that the longer the exposure, the lower the toxic levels become. In the end, we are limited by the available data and also by the ability of aquarists to measure chloramine itself.
This target of 0.005 ppm-Cl or less does not necessarily imply that all water used for aquaria must be that low. For example, an aquarium that tops off 2% of the tank volume daily (to replace evaporated water) will not have a chloramine concentration equal to the top off water. It will, however, have fresh chloramine added every day. Even if the chloramine added each day is broken down in the aquarium before the next addition (something that is likely, but not demonstrated for aquaria), then if the top off water contained 4 ppm chloramine, the aquarium would be boosted to 0.08 ppm every day. That level appears to be well above the danger zone for many invertebrates. Consequently, aquarists need to be aware of the chloramine levels in water that they use to replace evaporated water. Similar, and even more stringent, concerns would apply to water used for water changes or in setting up a new aquarium.
Measuring Chloramine
There are many kits suitable for measuring chloramine, with varying limits of detection. Many are not suitable for testing the low levels necessary for reef aquaria. The kit that I prefer for measuring low levels of chloramine is the Hach CN-70 (part # 1454200). It is capable of measuring total chlorine and free chlorine. Chloramine is found by the difference between these two values. It has a low range scale that runs from 0 to 0.7 ppm, and a high range that runs from 0 to 3.5 ppm. The low range can detect 0.01 ppm chloramine. It costs about $64 (with shipping) and is good for many tests. The colorimetric kit is very easy to use: reagent is mixed with the water to be tested and compared to a color wheel.
Removing Chloramine From Water: Chemical Reducing Agents
There are two primary ways to remove chloramine from tap water. The first is through the use of inorganic reducing agents such as thiosulfate. Thiosulfate (S2O3- -, which actually looks like -OSO2S-) is an inorganic chemical that is typically dissolved in water, usually as the sodium salt. When added to water containing chloramine, a reaction takes place, destroying the chloramine. The electrochemistry of sulfur compounds can be complicated, and different researchers report different products of this reaction (extrapolated from reactions with chlorine itself, not chloramine). The products have been suggested to include sulfate (SO4- - and HSO4-),10,14 elemental sulfur (S),10 and tetrathionate (S4O6- -),11-13 and may depend to some extent on the conditions, including the pH and the relative amounts of compounds present. John F. Kuhns (inventor of Amquel below) has indicated that he believes that the reaction resulting in sulfate is the most frequently observed. The reaction for this process is shown below:
S2O3-- + 4NH2Cl + 5H2O à 2SO4-- + 2H+ + 4HCl + 4NH3
Thiosulfate is also equally suited to dechlorinating free chlorine in water, and it has gained wide use in marine and freshwater aquaria. Unfortunately, the ammonia that is produced as a result of the reaction is still toxic. Consequently, thiosulfate alone is not always adequate for eliminating toxicity from chloramine.
Other products, such as hydroxymethanesulfonate (HOCH2SO3-; a known ammonia binder15 patented for aquarium uses by John F. Kuhns16 (sold as Amquel by Kordon and ClorAm-X by Reed Mariculture, among others) can be used to treat chloraminated water because they both break down chloramine and bind up the ammonia.
The reaction of ammonia with hydroxymethanesulfonate is mechanistically complicated, possibly involving decomposition to formaldehyde and reformation to the product (aminomethanesulfonate; shown below).15 The simplified overall reaction is believed to be:
NH3 + HOCH2SO3- à H2NCH2SO3- + H2O
Even more complicated is the reaction of hydroxymethanesulfonate with chloramine, or chlorine (as Cl2 or HOCl). In this case, the products that are formed have not been established.
So are these useful products? That is, do they eliminate all toxicity from chloramine and provide none of their own, either by themselves or through their degradation products? I cannot answer that question. Almost certainly, using them is better than not using them if there is chloramine in the water. Is the toxicity eliminated for even the most sensitive larval invertebrates? Again, I don't know. Without knowing what the degradation products are, or without detailed testing on a variety of very sensitive invertebrates, I don't know how one would conclude that they are satisfactory (or not). Maybe such tests exist, and if so, I'd be pleased to hear of them. In the end, my recommendation is to remove chlorine and chloramine in other ways, such as through an RO/DI system as described below.
Removing Chloramine From Water: Activated Carbon
Another method for removing chloramine from water is with activated carbon (as is contained in most RO/DI systems). In a two step process, the carbon catalytically breaks the chloramine down into ammonia, chloride, and nitrogen gas
C + NH2Cl + H2O à C-O + NH3 + Cl- + H+
C-O + 2NH2Cl à C + N2 + 2Cl- + 2H+ + H2O
where C stands for the activated carbon, and C-O stands for oxidized activated carbon. In this case, as was found for thiosulfate, the product includes ammonia, which is not bound significantly by activated carbon. Consequently, treatment of water with activated carbon will need to be followed up by some method of eliminating the ammonia.
In the case of a reverse osmosis/deionizing system (where carbon is usually part of the prefiltration prior to the RO membrane), the ammonia is partially removed by the reverse osmosis system. The extent of removal by the RO membrane depends on pH. At pH 7.5 or lower, reverse osmosis will remove ammonia from 1.4 ppm-Cl monochloramine to less than 0.1 ppm ammonia. The DI resin then removes any residual ammonia to levels unimportant to an aquarist.
Removing Chloramine With Activated Carbon: Does it Really Work?
There has been much debate over whether commercial RO/DI systems used by aquarists are actually removing chloramine in adequate quantity. The concern is not whether they can theoretically do so, but whether the actual units allow sufficient contact time between the water and the activated carbon for the units to do an adequate job.
I have been using a Spectrapure RO/DI system (CSP25DI) for years, and my water does contain chloramine, so naturally I was interested to know if it was up to the task. In discussing the issue with Charles Mitsis, President of Spectrapure, he said that my water was among the most difficult to successfully remove chloramine from because the pH was high, and he was not sure that the unit was adequate. The reasons for being concerned were that:
1. Monochloramine is the most difficult of the three chloramine species to remove because it is small (allowing it to pass through a reverse osmosis membrane).
2. Monochloramine is the most chemically stable of the chloramine species, so is the hardest to break down (as on activated carbon).
3. Monochloramine predominates over the other forms in tap water at pH above 7 (dichloramine predominates at pH 4-7).
4. The pores of the activated carbon may become plugged with sediment over time, reducing the effectiveness of the carbon at breaking apart chloramine.
5. At high pH, the pores of the RO membrane can swell, resulting in poorer rejection of impurities.
With this as the backdrop, I set about organizing a round of testing by aquarists to see if their commercially-available systems were adequately removing chloramine.
First, I selected a single, high quality test method for participants to use: the Hach CN-70 kit described above. I then asked aquarists to test several things:
1. The free and total chlorine in their tap water after letting it run for a while.
2. The free and total chlorine in their RO reject water.
3. The free and total chlorine in their finished RO/DI water.
4. The pH of the tap water.
In my case, for example, I had the following results:
Tap water:
pH ~9
Total Chlorine: 0.4-0.5 ppm one day, 0.08 ppm on a second day.
Free chlorine: <0.01 ppm (effectively all of the total chlorine was chloramine)
RO Reject water:
Total Chlorine: 0.02 ppm
Free chlorine: <0.01 ppm
Final RO/DI water:
Total Chlorine: <0.01 ppm
Consequently, within the capabilities of the Hach test kit (0.01 ppm), there is no chloramine getting through the system. A small amount does appear to get past the carbon to the RO waste water, but it does not get through the RO membrane and DI resin.
A similar set of data (more or less complete) was collected from about 20 aquarists in different parts of the country. These included systems that were stated to have a capacity of 25-100 gallons per day, the higher volume systems being especially interesting because the contact time with the carbon might be shorter. All but one had similar results to those reported here. The anomalous report produced the following results:
Tap Water:
pH 8.2
Total Chlorine: >3.5 ppm
Free Chlorine: >3.5 ppm
Filtered Tap Water: (single cartridge under sink, cold water side)
Total Chlorine: 0.7 ppm
Free Chlorine: 0.38 ppm
RO water: (11 month old cartridges)
Total Chlorine: 0.16 ppm
Free Chlorine: 0.06 ppm
RO/DI water: (11 month old cartridges)
Total Chlorine: 0.04 ppm
Free Chlorine: 0.02 ppm
RO/DI water: (Fresh cartridges)
Total Chlorine: <0.01 ppm
Free Chlorine: <0.01 ppm
In short, his tap water chloramine (and chlorine) levels were quite high. His old carbon and sediment cartridges were not quite up to the task, but when replaced, were adequate to remove all of the chloramine. Note that the 11 month old cartridges were still producing 0-1 ppm TDS RO/DI water.
Lessons Learned and Suggestions:
1. Most RO/DI systems seem capable of removing chloramine adequately for aquarists.
2. The carbon cartridge may become less useful over time, and it is possible that the chloramine removal effectiveness of a system may be lost before the DI appears to need changing.
3. Cheap sediment cartridges may expose the carbon cartridge to unnecessary fouling, which may permit chloramine to pass through the system. Cartridges should be replaced as soon as the pressure drops significantly, even if RO/DI water is still being produced at a reasonable rate or purity as measured by total dissolved solids.
4. Testing for chlorine and chloramine is easy, so any concern is easily reconciled.
5. One Hach kit provides several dozen test results. Our local Boston Club bought some kits and had a "water testing day." The kits can also become part of the "library" of a local club for aquarists to use once in a while to see if their systems are functioning. That way, the cost to each aquarist is minimal.
Conclusions
Chloramine in tap water should be a significant concern to aquarists. Its peculiar properties make it well suited to disinfection of water supplies, but also make it a potential toxin in aquaria. In order to render the water safe for use, aquarists need to use one of two systems for purification: an inorganic reducing agent combined with an additive that binds ammonia (or a single product that does both), or an RO/DI system. Chloramine is toxic enough that it would seem prudent for aquarists to spend the time and money necessary to ensure that they do not unduly stress their organisms. This activity includes setting up appropriate purification systems, and may also include testing the water to ensure that those systems are functioning properly.
Happy Reefing!
If you have any questions about this article, please visit my author forum on Reef Central.
References:
1. Corrosion control and chloramination, discolored water and nitrification. Sung, Windsor. MWRA, Southborough, MA, USA. Proceedings - Water Quality Technology Conference (2002), 1683-1686.
2. Toxicological significance of the chemical reactions of aqueous chlorine and chloramine. Scully, F. E.; Mazina, K.; Sonenshire, D. E.; Ringhand, H. P. Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, VA, USA. Avail. NTIS. Report (1988), (EPA/600/D-88/012; Order No. PB88-160270), 14 pp.
3. Acute toxicity of chlorine-produced oxidants (CPO) to the marine invertebrates Amphiporeia virginiana and Eohaustorius washingtonianus. Wan, M. T.; Van Aggelen, G.; Cheng, W.; Watts, R. G. Environmental Protection Branch, Environment Canada, North Vancouver, BC, Can. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (2000), 64(2), 205-212.
4. Effects of residual chlorine on estuarine organisms. Bender, M. E.; Roberts, M. H.; Diaz, R.; Huggett, R. J. Virginia Inst. Mar. Sci., Gloucester Point, VA, USA. Pollution Engineering and Technology (1977), 5(Biofouling Control Proced.: Technol. Ecol. Eff.), 101-8.
5. Chlorinated cooling waters in the marine environment: development of effluent guidelines. Capuzzo, Judith M.; Goldman, Joel C.; Davidson, John A.; Lawrence, Sarah A. Woods Hole Oceanogr. Inst., Woods Hole, MA, USA. Marine Pollution Bulletin (1977), 8(7), 161-3.
6. Combined toxicity of free chlorine, chloramine and temperature to stage I larvae of the American lobster Homarus americanus. Capuzzo, Judith M.; Lawrence, Sarah A.; Davidson, John A. Woods Hole Oceanogr. Inst., Woods Hole, MA, USA. Water Research (1976), 10(12), 1093-9.
7. The effects of free chlorine and chloramine on growth and respiration rates of larval lobsters (Homarus americanus). Capuzzo, Judith M. Woods Hole Oceanogr. Inst., Woods Hole, MA, USA. Water Research (1977), 11(12), 1021-4.
8. Kinetics of monochloramine decomposition in the presence of bromide. Trofe, Timothy W.; Inman, Guy W., Jr.; Johnson, J. Donald. Sch. Public Health, Univ. North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA. Environmental Science and Technology (1980), 14(5), 544-9.
9. Chlorine-induced mortality in fish. Grothe, Donald R.; Eaton, John W. Dep. Ecol. Behav. Biol., Univ. Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society (1975), 104(4), 800-2.
10. Dose of Thiosulfate needed in dechlorination of water. Al'terman, N. A. Med Inst., Stalinsk, gigiena I Sanitariya (1958), 23(No 6), 66-7.
11. Composition and method for removing chloramine from water containing same. Gergely; Anthony J.; Nichols; Ralph A. (Jungle Laboratories Corp., USA) US Patent 4,554,261; November 19, 1985.
12. The reactions between bleaching powder and thiosulfate in the purification of potable water. Strunk, H. Veroeff. a. d. Militaersanitaelsw. (1914), 28.
13. A study of analysis errors caused by nitrite and free available chlorine during iodometric titration of total residual chlorine in wastewater. Dietz, Edward A., Jr.; Cortellucci, Remi; Williams, Mary. USA. Water Environment Research (1996), 68(6), 974-980.
14. A potentiometric study of the reaction between halogen solutions and sodium thiosulfate. del Fresno, C.; Valdes, L. Anales soc. espan. fis. quim. (1936), 34 813-17.
15. Mechanism of the reaction of ammonia with the bisulfite derivative of formaldehyde. Henaff, Philippe Le. Compt. Rend. (1963), 256 3090-2.
16. Method and Product for removal of chloramines, chlorine, and ammonia from aquaculture water. Kuhns, John F. US Patent #4,666,610; May 19, 1987.
Indian Almond Leaf / Ketapang Leaf /
INTRODUCTION
indian almond leaves have been a long kept secret of breeders of bettas in south asia. it was long ago noticed that fish that lived in the waters next to indian almond trees (the leaves of which would fall naturally into the waters) were found to be healthier and more vibrant than their counterparts. it was surmised that if one were to introduce the leaves into aquariums one could achieve similar conditions as found in the fishes natural enviroment. the leaves were found to help keep their fish healthy with strong anti-bacterial properties and promote breeding. the dried leaves act as a "black water extract" which gradually turns the water brown like tea and effectively reduces the ph levels in water, releasing organic compounds such as humic acids, flavanoids (quercetin and kamferol) and tannins (s. a. punicalin, punicalagin and tercatein) into the water which absorb harmful chemicals. other fish known to benefit from indian almond leaf use include baby discus, dwarf chiclids, killi fish, rasboras, catfish and black water tetras.
tannins, by the way are described by horvath (1981) as "any phenolic compound of sufficiently high molecular weight containing sufficiant hydroxyls and other suitable groups (ie. carboxyls) to form effectively strong complexes with protein and other macromolecules under the particular enviromental conditions being studied."
from an article by chris yew (www.siamsbestbettas.com)
"What is Humic Acid? Is it a mixture of several organic acids? Humic acids are a complex mixture of partially "decomposed" and otherwise transformed organic materials. The freshwater humic acids can come from a variety of sources, most of which are on land (decomposing terrestrial vegetation.) These substances wash into lakes and rivers, undergoing further transformations along the way, and ultimately into the ocean.
Humic acid contains Sulfur, Nitrogen and Phosphorus in varying amounts. It also contains metals such as Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn etc. which can be 'chelated' in some undefined way. Humic acid can be broken down into two groups based on the polarity and size of the individual 'compounds'.
The smaller, more polar fraction is generally termed fulvic acid and the larger, more non-polar fraction is generally termed humic acid. Humic acids are the end product of microbial degradation of plant and animal debris and are one of the most important constituents of fertile soils.
Tannins, lignins and fulvic acids are sub classes of humic acids. They all tint the water yellow.
Tannic and humic acids may be useful for inhibiting many types of bacteria including cyano-bacteria and are fairly benign for your fish.
Another paradoxical effect of humic acids is the detoxification of heavy metals. Humic material and detritus in the aquarium also rapidly absorb and detoxify many chemicals including zinc, aluminum and copper! One might expect them to be made more, not less toxic by humic acids, but the studies seem to indicate a detoxifying effect.
Also important to know: The harder the water the more ineffective the humic acids - - - more exactly: the dissolved lime in the water produces undissolvable calcium humates. So, the higher the water hardness, the higher must be the supply of humates in order to achieve an acidifying effect. The softer the water, the less humates are needed and the better the effect. It creates a natural environment similar to that of the lakes in the tropical rainforest and some area of the Amazon River. It also induces spawning for most soft water and acid loving fishes"
INDIAN ALMOND LEAF, THE TREE
terminalia catappa l. (scientific name)
common names:
badamier, java almond, amandier de cayenne, tropical almond, wild almond, indian almond, myrobalan, malabar almond, singapore almond, ketapang, huu kwang, sea almond, kobateishi, west indian almond, amandel huu kwang.
family: combretaceae (combretum family).
tropical almond trees are large deciduous trees that thrive as ornamentals tree in many tropical cities around the world. originally from india, it grows up to 90 feet tall with horizontal whorls of branches offering clusters of foot long, obovate leaves that turn pink-red to red-yellow before falling. the greenish-white female and male flowers are on the same tree and are inconspicious. it has large (2-3 inch) nutty fruits very similar in taste to commercially grown almonds.
hardiness: usda zones 9 thru 11
propagation: seeds
culture: full sun, moist, well drained soil. has salt and drought tolerance but should be planted in frost free areas.
tropical almond tree can be grown in a container where it's size can be controlled for many years.
TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL USES
leaves, bark and nutty fruits of tree have been used in various ways around the world;
- to cure dysentry (south east asia)
- dressing of rheumatic joints (indonesia)
- asthma, stop bleeding during tooth extraction, travel nausea (mexico)
- leprosy, headaches, rheumatism, scabies, skin diseases (india)
- to get rid of internal parasites (philippines)
- treat eye problems, coughs, rheumatism, wound dressing, diarrhea (samoa)
- treat liver diseases (taiwan)
- colic (south america)
- scabies (pakistan)
- fever and dysentry (brazil)
modern research has identified some properties that could treat high blood pressure.
the leaves contain agents for chemo-prevention of cancer and probably have anticarciogenic properties.
the kernel of indian almond leaf has shown aphrodisiac activity; it can probably be used in treatment of some forms of sexual inadequacies (premature ejaculation).
ethanol extract of the leaves have shown potential in treatment of sickle cell disorders.
the indian almond tree also produces a substance in it's leaves and sap that defends against insect parasites.
USE IN BREEDING
south asian breeders will use dried indian almond leaves in their breeding tank as it's ph lowering properties mean less water changes are needed in the crucial first few weeks of the frys life. i was also told that by heavily treating breeding tank water with IAL you could increase the ratio of male to female substantially. i tested this theory during my last two spawns and can say that any increase in male to female ratios was almost non existent. still, i have heard from people i respect that it is indeed true. see for yourself. as well, the leaf promotes an increase in breeding frequency in your adults and improves health and vitality in newborn fry. it is suggested you replace leaves every two or three weeks until the fry are 3 to 4 months old. males love to build bubble nests under floating almond leaves and females will find refuge under a submerged leaf as well. the water becomes brownish and simulates their natural habitat.
TREATING SICK FISH
indian almond leaf has been used to cure sick fish of bacterial infections and to help speed up healing of damaged fins or body injuries. it should be noted that indian almond leaf is an alternative to commercially produced medicines but it's not a magic "cure-all", especially when dealing with diseases like dropsy, velvet etc. think of it as more of a preventative medicine. we have set up an indian almond leaf "betta spa" tank that all our fish spend some time in once a month.
if you choose to use indian almond leaf as a medicine you should be prepared to keep your fish in the tank for 10 - 14 days, avoid direct sunlight, keep the water temperature around 70 -82 degrees f. and feed live food preferably, to achieve desired results.
CONDITIONING FIGHTERS
traditionally, breeders of "fighting" plakats have used almond leaf to condition their fish. fry that have grown up in a community tank often have "softer" skin and scales are not smooth or slippery enough to tolerate hard biting from a sharp toothed opponent. indian almond leaf is used to harden and coat the skin and scales. the plakat is placed in a clay pot filled with clean and aged water along with a leaf for at least 7 days. the betta is fed live food once a day and is kept in a dark and quiet place. afterwards, you will find you betta to be lively, with bright colouration, strength and full fins. this technique can be used sucessfully to cure sick fish and help grow back fins of any betta.
PRECAUTIONS
betta breeders who choose to use indian almond leaf exclusively should be aware that bettas that have been raised with indian almond leaf treated water might not be able to adapt to aged tap water once sold to someone unaware. it's always important to know how any betta you plan to buy has been raised and as a breeder you should inform prospective buyers as well. excessive use of indian almond leaf also contributes to very acidic water conditions and lowers ph levels too much in some instances.
WHERE TO GET?
indian almond leaf can be found for sale on various betta websites as well as aquabid. of course if you live in south east asia you can pick it off the street as it's found everywhere. it is recommended that you wash dried leaves in water before placing in tanks and replace after 1 to 2 weeks. you can now get it in a teabag form as well.
Almond Leaf
The poor man’s water conditioner
by S. N. Nagendra
of India
Aquarticles
Quite often we tend to neglect the quality of water provided for fish in containment. Disasters with aquariums happen mainly because of poor water standards. For the better aquarists there are products commercially available to improve water conditions. But the majority of us end up buying either low grade stuff OR pay very high to get better products. But, here lies a simple way of enhancing your water parameters by using a leaf of the Great Indian Almond Tree…
Like our good friend Aditya said: Take care of the water; the fish will take care of themselves.
Benefits of almond tree leaf:
The (wild) Sea Almond tree (Terminalia catappa) produces a poison in its leaves and sap to defend against insect parasites. Even the dried leaves contain this chemical substance. These leaves when put into water release anti-bacterial substances into the water. The colour of the water also turns to brown gradually thereby creating an environment of black water.
Almond leaves actually release organic acids like humic and tannins. This lowers the pH. They help to absorb harmful chemicals and thus create a soothing and calm environment for the fish.
Availability:
These are available in almost all cities in India. The plants are seen in most residential areas and dry leaves are a plentiful to pick. In Bangalore, you can see them around Lalbagh and Cubbon Park areas.
In Singapore, they are sold at $1 per leaf!! (Where they can be bought via the Internet - ed.)
Usage/Dosage:
Almond leaves are particularly suitable for sensitive soft water fishes baby discus, dwarf cichlids, rare bettas and all black water tetras, rasboras and catfishes. They are not suitable for hard water fishes such as African cichlids.
The dried leaves are ideal for reducing fish loss due to bacterial disease, and for keeping sensitive species.
Add one leaf per 50 litres of water for all fishes under medication, or one leaf for a 3 feet standard aquarium for general maintenance.
The fishes will be rejuvenated with improved vitality.
Various parts of almond trees are also used in traditional medicine practices throughout S.E. Asia and India.
Duration:
Depending on the condition of the leaf; it can be in there as long as two weeks. If leaves deteriorate by breaking or tearing, or start withering, remove the leaf immediately and replace with another.
Another important thing is that using almond leaves regularly also helps in spawning activities in fishes!!
indian almond leaves have been a long kept secret of breeders of bettas in south asia. it was long ago noticed that fish that lived in the waters next to indian almond trees (the leaves of which would fall naturally into the waters) were found to be healthier and more vibrant than their counterparts. it was surmised that if one were to introduce the leaves into aquariums one could achieve similar conditions as found in the fishes natural enviroment. the leaves were found to help keep their fish healthy with strong anti-bacterial properties and promote breeding. the dried leaves act as a "black water extract" which gradually turns the water brown like tea and effectively reduces the ph levels in water, releasing organic compounds such as humic acids, flavanoids (quercetin and kamferol) and tannins (s. a. punicalin, punicalagin and tercatein) into the water which absorb harmful chemicals. other fish known to benefit from indian almond leaf use include baby discus, dwarf chiclids, killi fish, rasboras, catfish and black water tetras.
tannins, by the way are described by horvath (1981) as "any phenolic compound of sufficiently high molecular weight containing sufficiant hydroxyls and other suitable groups (ie. carboxyls) to form effectively strong complexes with protein and other macromolecules under the particular enviromental conditions being studied."
from an article by chris yew (www.siamsbestbettas.com)
"What is Humic Acid? Is it a mixture of several organic acids? Humic acids are a complex mixture of partially "decomposed" and otherwise transformed organic materials. The freshwater humic acids can come from a variety of sources, most of which are on land (decomposing terrestrial vegetation.) These substances wash into lakes and rivers, undergoing further transformations along the way, and ultimately into the ocean.
Humic acid contains Sulfur, Nitrogen and Phosphorus in varying amounts. It also contains metals such as Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn etc. which can be 'chelated' in some undefined way. Humic acid can be broken down into two groups based on the polarity and size of the individual 'compounds'.
The smaller, more polar fraction is generally termed fulvic acid and the larger, more non-polar fraction is generally termed humic acid. Humic acids are the end product of microbial degradation of plant and animal debris and are one of the most important constituents of fertile soils.
Tannins, lignins and fulvic acids are sub classes of humic acids. They all tint the water yellow.
Tannic and humic acids may be useful for inhibiting many types of bacteria including cyano-bacteria and are fairly benign for your fish.
Another paradoxical effect of humic acids is the detoxification of heavy metals. Humic material and detritus in the aquarium also rapidly absorb and detoxify many chemicals including zinc, aluminum and copper! One might expect them to be made more, not less toxic by humic acids, but the studies seem to indicate a detoxifying effect.
Also important to know: The harder the water the more ineffective the humic acids - - - more exactly: the dissolved lime in the water produces undissolvable calcium humates. So, the higher the water hardness, the higher must be the supply of humates in order to achieve an acidifying effect. The softer the water, the less humates are needed and the better the effect. It creates a natural environment similar to that of the lakes in the tropical rainforest and some area of the Amazon River. It also induces spawning for most soft water and acid loving fishes"
INDIAN ALMOND LEAF, THE TREE
terminalia catappa l. (scientific name)
common names:
badamier, java almond, amandier de cayenne, tropical almond, wild almond, indian almond, myrobalan, malabar almond, singapore almond, ketapang, huu kwang, sea almond, kobateishi, west indian almond, amandel huu kwang.
family: combretaceae (combretum family).
tropical almond trees are large deciduous trees that thrive as ornamentals tree in many tropical cities around the world. originally from india, it grows up to 90 feet tall with horizontal whorls of branches offering clusters of foot long, obovate leaves that turn pink-red to red-yellow before falling. the greenish-white female and male flowers are on the same tree and are inconspicious. it has large (2-3 inch) nutty fruits very similar in taste to commercially grown almonds.
hardiness: usda zones 9 thru 11
propagation: seeds
culture: full sun, moist, well drained soil. has salt and drought tolerance but should be planted in frost free areas.
tropical almond tree can be grown in a container where it's size can be controlled for many years.
TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL USES
leaves, bark and nutty fruits of tree have been used in various ways around the world;
- to cure dysentry (south east asia)
- dressing of rheumatic joints (indonesia)
- asthma, stop bleeding during tooth extraction, travel nausea (mexico)
- leprosy, headaches, rheumatism, scabies, skin diseases (india)
- to get rid of internal parasites (philippines)
- treat eye problems, coughs, rheumatism, wound dressing, diarrhea (samoa)
- treat liver diseases (taiwan)
- colic (south america)
- scabies (pakistan)
- fever and dysentry (brazil)
modern research has identified some properties that could treat high blood pressure.
the leaves contain agents for chemo-prevention of cancer and probably have anticarciogenic properties.
the kernel of indian almond leaf has shown aphrodisiac activity; it can probably be used in treatment of some forms of sexual inadequacies (premature ejaculation).
ethanol extract of the leaves have shown potential in treatment of sickle cell disorders.
the indian almond tree also produces a substance in it's leaves and sap that defends against insect parasites.
USE IN BREEDING
south asian breeders will use dried indian almond leaves in their breeding tank as it's ph lowering properties mean less water changes are needed in the crucial first few weeks of the frys life. i was also told that by heavily treating breeding tank water with IAL you could increase the ratio of male to female substantially. i tested this theory during my last two spawns and can say that any increase in male to female ratios was almost non existent. still, i have heard from people i respect that it is indeed true. see for yourself. as well, the leaf promotes an increase in breeding frequency in your adults and improves health and vitality in newborn fry. it is suggested you replace leaves every two or three weeks until the fry are 3 to 4 months old. males love to build bubble nests under floating almond leaves and females will find refuge under a submerged leaf as well. the water becomes brownish and simulates their natural habitat.
TREATING SICK FISH
indian almond leaf has been used to cure sick fish of bacterial infections and to help speed up healing of damaged fins or body injuries. it should be noted that indian almond leaf is an alternative to commercially produced medicines but it's not a magic "cure-all", especially when dealing with diseases like dropsy, velvet etc. think of it as more of a preventative medicine. we have set up an indian almond leaf "betta spa" tank that all our fish spend some time in once a month.
if you choose to use indian almond leaf as a medicine you should be prepared to keep your fish in the tank for 10 - 14 days, avoid direct sunlight, keep the water temperature around 70 -82 degrees f. and feed live food preferably, to achieve desired results.
CONDITIONING FIGHTERS
traditionally, breeders of "fighting" plakats have used almond leaf to condition their fish. fry that have grown up in a community tank often have "softer" skin and scales are not smooth or slippery enough to tolerate hard biting from a sharp toothed opponent. indian almond leaf is used to harden and coat the skin and scales. the plakat is placed in a clay pot filled with clean and aged water along with a leaf for at least 7 days. the betta is fed live food once a day and is kept in a dark and quiet place. afterwards, you will find you betta to be lively, with bright colouration, strength and full fins. this technique can be used sucessfully to cure sick fish and help grow back fins of any betta.
PRECAUTIONS
betta breeders who choose to use indian almond leaf exclusively should be aware that bettas that have been raised with indian almond leaf treated water might not be able to adapt to aged tap water once sold to someone unaware. it's always important to know how any betta you plan to buy has been raised and as a breeder you should inform prospective buyers as well. excessive use of indian almond leaf also contributes to very acidic water conditions and lowers ph levels too much in some instances.
WHERE TO GET?
indian almond leaf can be found for sale on various betta websites as well as aquabid. of course if you live in south east asia you can pick it off the street as it's found everywhere. it is recommended that you wash dried leaves in water before placing in tanks and replace after 1 to 2 weeks. you can now get it in a teabag form as well.
Almond Leaf
The poor man’s water conditioner
by S. N. Nagendra
of India
Aquarticles
Quite often we tend to neglect the quality of water provided for fish in containment. Disasters with aquariums happen mainly because of poor water standards. For the better aquarists there are products commercially available to improve water conditions. But the majority of us end up buying either low grade stuff OR pay very high to get better products. But, here lies a simple way of enhancing your water parameters by using a leaf of the Great Indian Almond Tree…
Like our good friend Aditya said: Take care of the water; the fish will take care of themselves.
Benefits of almond tree leaf:
The (wild) Sea Almond tree (Terminalia catappa) produces a poison in its leaves and sap to defend against insect parasites. Even the dried leaves contain this chemical substance. These leaves when put into water release anti-bacterial substances into the water. The colour of the water also turns to brown gradually thereby creating an environment of black water.
Almond leaves actually release organic acids like humic and tannins. This lowers the pH. They help to absorb harmful chemicals and thus create a soothing and calm environment for the fish.
Availability:
These are available in almost all cities in India. The plants are seen in most residential areas and dry leaves are a plentiful to pick. In Bangalore, you can see them around Lalbagh and Cubbon Park areas.
In Singapore, they are sold at $1 per leaf!! (Where they can be bought via the Internet - ed.)
Usage/Dosage:
Almond leaves are particularly suitable for sensitive soft water fishes baby discus, dwarf cichlids, rare bettas and all black water tetras, rasboras and catfishes. They are not suitable for hard water fishes such as African cichlids.
The dried leaves are ideal for reducing fish loss due to bacterial disease, and for keeping sensitive species.
Add one leaf per 50 litres of water for all fishes under medication, or one leaf for a 3 feet standard aquarium for general maintenance.
The fishes will be rejuvenated with improved vitality.
Various parts of almond trees are also used in traditional medicine practices throughout S.E. Asia and India.
Duration:
Depending on the condition of the leaf; it can be in there as long as two weeks. If leaves deteriorate by breaking or tearing, or start withering, remove the leaf immediately and replace with another.
Another important thing is that using almond leaves regularly also helps in spawning activities in fishes!!
Tap Water Conditioning and Treatment
There are two things you should do when performing regular maintenance water changes for your fish: correct the temperature, and remove the substances which are toxins to your fish. If you use bottled water, you only need to worry about the temperature. You should never, ever use distilled water, as it lacks nutrients vital to the health of fish. But any other spring or bottled water is usually fine (I say usually, as it may not contain enough of a buffering capacity, and you will notice that levels fluxuate). Water from a well may not require additional maintenance at all, but since most of us use good ole' plain tap water for our fish, we have to do a little maintenance to the water before using it:
1) Allow your water to become the same temp as the fish's existing water to prevent temperature shock to the fish, which will leave it vulnerable to a number of parasites and bacteria. Sit tap water out overnight before using it so that it'll be room temperature. If your fish is in warmer water, you should get the water warm to the same degree, only varying a degree or two, before putting your fish in it.
Regardless of whether your municipality's water system uses chlorine or chloramine, these chemicals eventually break down. Chloramines are a more stable compound to begin with, so they remain in the water a little longer that chlorines do. But simply waiting for these chemicals to evaporate from your water is not usually good enough: metals found in tap water will not chelate on their own. Most any city's tap water is going to have some heavy metals, simply due to the pipes the water is carried in, especially if they are older pipes. This is why we use:
2) Tap water conditioner: to quickly and effectively remove water treatment, and any possible heavy metals. This is a safe and necessary practice fishkeepers need to become quite familiar with.
But Wait! There's More!
Sorry, you probably thought you were in the clear already. :> But, there's one more important thing you should know. Chlorine (chloride and water) or chloramine (nitrogen gas, water, and HCl) will react with tap water conditioners to form simpler, more stable compounds. If your city's water is treated with chloramine, conditioning the water will break down and release ammonia into your water. You must also treat for this, else you'll be introducing even more toxins into your fish water.
In plain English: some tap water conditioning products will note on the label that they also treat ammonia. If your city water is treated with chloramine, use these. If you don't know, test your water for ammonia after dechlorinating it!
1) Allow your water to become the same temp as the fish's existing water to prevent temperature shock to the fish, which will leave it vulnerable to a number of parasites and bacteria. Sit tap water out overnight before using it so that it'll be room temperature. If your fish is in warmer water, you should get the water warm to the same degree, only varying a degree or two, before putting your fish in it.
Regardless of whether your municipality's water system uses chlorine or chloramine, these chemicals eventually break down. Chloramines are a more stable compound to begin with, so they remain in the water a little longer that chlorines do. But simply waiting for these chemicals to evaporate from your water is not usually good enough: metals found in tap water will not chelate on their own. Most any city's tap water is going to have some heavy metals, simply due to the pipes the water is carried in, especially if they are older pipes. This is why we use:
2) Tap water conditioner: to quickly and effectively remove water treatment, and any possible heavy metals. This is a safe and necessary practice fishkeepers need to become quite familiar with.
But Wait! There's More!
Sorry, you probably thought you were in the clear already. :> But, there's one more important thing you should know. Chlorine (chloride and water) or chloramine (nitrogen gas, water, and HCl) will react with tap water conditioners to form simpler, more stable compounds. If your city's water is treated with chloramine, conditioning the water will break down and release ammonia into your water. You must also treat for this, else you'll be introducing even more toxins into your fish water.
In plain English: some tap water conditioning products will note on the label that they also treat ammonia. If your city water is treated with chloramine, use these. If you don't know, test your water for ammonia after dechlorinating it!
Startup cycle
Call it cycling, nitrification, biological cycle, startup cycle, break-in cycle, or the nitrogen cycle. No matter what name you use, every newly set up aquarium goes through a process of establishing beneficial bacterial colonies. Older aquariums also go through periods during which the bacterial colonies fluctuate. Failure to understand this process is the largest contributing factor to the loss of fish. Learning what it is, and how to deal with critical periods during the nitrogen cycle, will greatly increase your chances of successful fish keeping.
The Waste Problem
Unlike nature, an aquarium is a closed environment. All the wastes excreted from the fish, uneaten food, and decaying plants stay inside the tank. If nothing eliminated those wastes, your beautiful aquarium would turn into a cesspool in no time at all.
Actually, for a short period of time, a new aquarium does become a toxic cesspool. The water may look clear, but don't be fooled. It's loaded with toxins. Sounds awful, doesn't it? Fortunately bacteria that are capable of converting wastes to safer by-products begin growing in the tank as soon as fish are added. Unfortunately there aren't enough bacteria to eliminate all the toxins immediately, so for a period of several weeks to a month or more, your fish are at risk.
However, you need not lose them. Armed with an understanding of how the nitrogen cycle works and knowing the proper steps to take, you can sail through the break-in cycle with very few problems.
Stages of the Nitrogen Cycle
There are three stages of the nitrogen cycle, each of which presents different challenges.
Initial stage: The cycle begins when fish are introduced to the aquarium. Their feces, urine, as well as any uneaten food, are quickly broken down into either ionized or unionized ammonia. The ionized form, Ammonium (NH4), is present if the pH is below 7, and is not toxic to fish. The unionized form, Ammonia (NH3), is is present if the pH is 7 or above, and is highly toxic to fish. Any amount of unionized Ammonia (NH3) is dangerous, however once the levels reach 2 ppm, the fish are in grave danger. Ammonia usually begins rising by the third day after introducing fish.
Second stage: During this stage Nitrosomonas bacteria oxidize the ammonia, thus eliminating it. However, the by-product of ammonia oxidation is nitrite, which is also highly toxic to fish. Nitrites levels as low as low as 1 mg/l can be lethal to some fish. Nitrite usually begins rising by the end of the first week after introducing fish.
Third stage: In the last stage of the cycle, Nitrobacter bacteria convert the nitrites into nitrates. Nitrates are not highly toxic to fish in low to moderate levels. Routine partial water changes will keep the nitrate levels within the safe range. Established tanks should be tested for nitrates every few months to ensure that levels are not becoming extremely high.
Now that you know what is happening, what should you do? Simple steps such as testing and changing the water will help you manage the nitrogen cycle without losing your fish.
What To Do
The key for success is testing the water for ammonia and nitrites, and taking action quickly when problems occur. To aid in tracking the status of your aquarium, links to charts for logging your tests can be found under the charts section of this page. Each chart shows the danger zones and offers steps to reduce toxins before they result in loss of your fish.
Test for ammonia: Begin testing on day three after adding the fish, and continue every day until the ammonia begins to drop. After it begins to fall, continue testing every other day until the ammonia reaches zero. Using the chart provided, plot the ammonia levels. Should ammonia reach the danger zone, take steps as shown on the chart. If at any time fish show signs of distress, such as rapid breathing (gilling), clamped fins, erratic swimming, or hanging at the surface for air, take immediate action to lower the ammonia level. Chemicals such as Ammo-Lock will quickly neutralize toxic ammonia.
Test for nitrites: Begin testing one week after adding the fish. Continue testing every second or third day, until it reaches zero. Using the chart provided, plot the nitrite levels and take steps as shown on the chart if nitrite reaches the danger zone. If at any time fish show signs of distress, such as rapid breathing or hanging near the surface seemingly gasping for air, test for nitrite. If levels are elevated perform an immediate 25-50% water change and test daily until levels drop.
What Not To Do
# Don't add more fish - wait until the cycle is completed.
# Don't change the filter media - the beneficial bacteria are growing there. Don't disturb them until they have become well established.
# Don't overfeed the fish - when in doubt underfeed your fish. Remember that anything going into the tank will produce wastes one way or another.
# Don't try to alter the pH - the beneficial bacteria can be affected by changes in pH. Unless there is a serious problem with the pH, leave it alone during the startup cycle process.
Q: Will adding bacteria solutions, such as those available at pet shops, eliminate the break-in cycle?
A: No, due to lack of an ongoing supply of ammonia and oxygen, the nitrification bacteria cannot survive in a bottle for a prolonged period of time. There are manufacturers making special preparations of the nitrogen fixing bateria. However, what you see on the shelf at the store is simply the bacteria needed for the first stage of the cycle, not nitritfying bacteria. Since the bacteria needed for the first stage of the cycle is already present in the tank once it is set up, there is no need to purchase more of what you already have.
Q: Will changing the water lengthen the time of the cycle?
A: It is true that partial water changes decrease the level of ammonia and nitrites, which in turn triggers less growth of the bacteria that feed on them. That doesn't mean you shouldn't perform water changes. If the ammonia or nitrite levels become too high, the fish will die. That means that partial water changes should be done whenever toxins reach dangerous levels, even if it means if it slows down the completion of the cycle.
Q: Won't filling the tank and letting it run for several days before adding the fish get the nitrogen cycle going?
A: No, the cycle doesn't start the instant the tank is set up. An ongoing supply of ammonia must be present for the process to begin. That only happens if fish are in the tank, or ammonia is added regularly, as is done in "fishless cycling".
Q: A friend started a new aquarium and didn't test the water or do water changes. In spite of all that, he didn't lose a single fish. If he can get away with that, why can't I?
A: Your friend probably had the magic combination of several of these key factors; relatively few fish, very hardy fish, a large aquarium, minimal feeding, live plants, and water with a low pH. While it is possible to get through the startup-cycle without doing anything, it is not wise to leave it to chance. The only way to be sure you don't lose fish is to test your water to monitor what’s happening, and take steps if ammonia or nitrite levels soar too high.
Ammonia Check :
NSTRUCTIONS
1 Begin ammonia testing on third day after aqaurium has been set up.
2 Plot test results on chart daily until values drop to zero.
3 If results are in the shaded areas, take appropriate steps as shown.
4 If at any time the fish show signs of distress immediately take steps shown for > 2.0
Water Changes
Use water that has a lower pH and the same temperature as the aquarium water.
When changing water remove any uneaten food and other debris.
How to Lower pH
Filter water using peat.
Use water with a lower pH when doing water change (R.O water, or distilled water).
Use a pH lowering agent such as pH Down.
Chemicaly Neutralizing Ammonia
Use a commercially prepared chemical such as Ammo-Lock, according to manufacturers instructions.
Ammonia in ppm :
0.25 - 1 ppm : Perform 25% water change and reduce feeding by half
1 - 2 ppm : Perform 25 to 50% water change and continue reduce feeding and observe the fish whether in distress or not.
> 2ppm - Perform 50% water change, Chemically neutralize ammonia
Lower pH below 7.0,Withold feedings until level drops
Nitrate Check :
INSTRUCTIONS
1 Begin nitrite testing on seventh day after aqaurium has been set up, or when the ammonia begins to drop
2 Plot test results on chart daily until values drop to zero.
3 If results are in the shaded areas, take appropriate steps as shown.
4 If at any time the fish show signs of distress immediately take steps shown for > 1.0
Water Changes
When changing water remove any uneaten food and other debris.
Water changes are the only way to reduce Nitrites. If levels are extremely high, multiple water changes
may be necessary to bring the level to a safe range
Nitrate in ppm :
0.1 - 0.5 : Perform 25 % water change,Reduce feedings by half
0.5 - 1 ppm : Perform 50 % water change,Reduce feedings by half n Add 1/2 oz salt per 1 gallon water,Increase aeration.
> 1ppm : Perform 50 % water change, Retest after water change, if not below 1.0, change water again.
http://freshaquarium.about.com/cs/biologicalcycle/a/nitrogencycle_3.htm
The Waste Problem
Unlike nature, an aquarium is a closed environment. All the wastes excreted from the fish, uneaten food, and decaying plants stay inside the tank. If nothing eliminated those wastes, your beautiful aquarium would turn into a cesspool in no time at all.
Actually, for a short period of time, a new aquarium does become a toxic cesspool. The water may look clear, but don't be fooled. It's loaded with toxins. Sounds awful, doesn't it? Fortunately bacteria that are capable of converting wastes to safer by-products begin growing in the tank as soon as fish are added. Unfortunately there aren't enough bacteria to eliminate all the toxins immediately, so for a period of several weeks to a month or more, your fish are at risk.
However, you need not lose them. Armed with an understanding of how the nitrogen cycle works and knowing the proper steps to take, you can sail through the break-in cycle with very few problems.
Stages of the Nitrogen Cycle
There are three stages of the nitrogen cycle, each of which presents different challenges.
Initial stage: The cycle begins when fish are introduced to the aquarium. Their feces, urine, as well as any uneaten food, are quickly broken down into either ionized or unionized ammonia. The ionized form, Ammonium (NH4), is present if the pH is below 7, and is not toxic to fish. The unionized form, Ammonia (NH3), is is present if the pH is 7 or above, and is highly toxic to fish. Any amount of unionized Ammonia (NH3) is dangerous, however once the levels reach 2 ppm, the fish are in grave danger. Ammonia usually begins rising by the third day after introducing fish.
Second stage: During this stage Nitrosomonas bacteria oxidize the ammonia, thus eliminating it. However, the by-product of ammonia oxidation is nitrite, which is also highly toxic to fish. Nitrites levels as low as low as 1 mg/l can be lethal to some fish. Nitrite usually begins rising by the end of the first week after introducing fish.
Third stage: In the last stage of the cycle, Nitrobacter bacteria convert the nitrites into nitrates. Nitrates are not highly toxic to fish in low to moderate levels. Routine partial water changes will keep the nitrate levels within the safe range. Established tanks should be tested for nitrates every few months to ensure that levels are not becoming extremely high.
Now that you know what is happening, what should you do? Simple steps such as testing and changing the water will help you manage the nitrogen cycle without losing your fish.
What To Do
The key for success is testing the water for ammonia and nitrites, and taking action quickly when problems occur. To aid in tracking the status of your aquarium, links to charts for logging your tests can be found under the charts section of this page. Each chart shows the danger zones and offers steps to reduce toxins before they result in loss of your fish.
Test for ammonia: Begin testing on day three after adding the fish, and continue every day until the ammonia begins to drop. After it begins to fall, continue testing every other day until the ammonia reaches zero. Using the chart provided, plot the ammonia levels. Should ammonia reach the danger zone, take steps as shown on the chart. If at any time fish show signs of distress, such as rapid breathing (gilling), clamped fins, erratic swimming, or hanging at the surface for air, take immediate action to lower the ammonia level. Chemicals such as Ammo-Lock will quickly neutralize toxic ammonia.
Test for nitrites: Begin testing one week after adding the fish. Continue testing every second or third day, until it reaches zero. Using the chart provided, plot the nitrite levels and take steps as shown on the chart if nitrite reaches the danger zone. If at any time fish show signs of distress, such as rapid breathing or hanging near the surface seemingly gasping for air, test for nitrite. If levels are elevated perform an immediate 25-50% water change and test daily until levels drop.
What Not To Do
# Don't add more fish - wait until the cycle is completed.
# Don't change the filter media - the beneficial bacteria are growing there. Don't disturb them until they have become well established.
# Don't overfeed the fish - when in doubt underfeed your fish. Remember that anything going into the tank will produce wastes one way or another.
# Don't try to alter the pH - the beneficial bacteria can be affected by changes in pH. Unless there is a serious problem with the pH, leave it alone during the startup cycle process.
Q: Will adding bacteria solutions, such as those available at pet shops, eliminate the break-in cycle?
A: No, due to lack of an ongoing supply of ammonia and oxygen, the nitrification bacteria cannot survive in a bottle for a prolonged period of time. There are manufacturers making special preparations of the nitrogen fixing bateria. However, what you see on the shelf at the store is simply the bacteria needed for the first stage of the cycle, not nitritfying bacteria. Since the bacteria needed for the first stage of the cycle is already present in the tank once it is set up, there is no need to purchase more of what you already have.
Q: Will changing the water lengthen the time of the cycle?
A: It is true that partial water changes decrease the level of ammonia and nitrites, which in turn triggers less growth of the bacteria that feed on them. That doesn't mean you shouldn't perform water changes. If the ammonia or nitrite levels become too high, the fish will die. That means that partial water changes should be done whenever toxins reach dangerous levels, even if it means if it slows down the completion of the cycle.
Q: Won't filling the tank and letting it run for several days before adding the fish get the nitrogen cycle going?
A: No, the cycle doesn't start the instant the tank is set up. An ongoing supply of ammonia must be present for the process to begin. That only happens if fish are in the tank, or ammonia is added regularly, as is done in "fishless cycling".
Q: A friend started a new aquarium and didn't test the water or do water changes. In spite of all that, he didn't lose a single fish. If he can get away with that, why can't I?
A: Your friend probably had the magic combination of several of these key factors; relatively few fish, very hardy fish, a large aquarium, minimal feeding, live plants, and water with a low pH. While it is possible to get through the startup-cycle without doing anything, it is not wise to leave it to chance. The only way to be sure you don't lose fish is to test your water to monitor what’s happening, and take steps if ammonia or nitrite levels soar too high.
Ammonia Check :
NSTRUCTIONS
1 Begin ammonia testing on third day after aqaurium has been set up.
2 Plot test results on chart daily until values drop to zero.
3 If results are in the shaded areas, take appropriate steps as shown.
4 If at any time the fish show signs of distress immediately take steps shown for > 2.0
Water Changes
Use water that has a lower pH and the same temperature as the aquarium water.
When changing water remove any uneaten food and other debris.
How to Lower pH
Filter water using peat.
Use water with a lower pH when doing water change (R.O water, or distilled water).
Use a pH lowering agent such as pH Down.
Chemicaly Neutralizing Ammonia
Use a commercially prepared chemical such as Ammo-Lock, according to manufacturers instructions.
Ammonia in ppm :
0.25 - 1 ppm : Perform 25% water change and reduce feeding by half
1 - 2 ppm : Perform 25 to 50% water change and continue reduce feeding and observe the fish whether in distress or not.
> 2ppm - Perform 50% water change, Chemically neutralize ammonia
Lower pH below 7.0,Withold feedings until level drops
Nitrate Check :
INSTRUCTIONS
1 Begin nitrite testing on seventh day after aqaurium has been set up, or when the ammonia begins to drop
2 Plot test results on chart daily until values drop to zero.
3 If results are in the shaded areas, take appropriate steps as shown.
4 If at any time the fish show signs of distress immediately take steps shown for > 1.0
Water Changes
When changing water remove any uneaten food and other debris.
Water changes are the only way to reduce Nitrites. If levels are extremely high, multiple water changes
may be necessary to bring the level to a safe range
Nitrate in ppm :
0.1 - 0.5 : Perform 25 % water change,Reduce feedings by half
0.5 - 1 ppm : Perform 50 % water change,Reduce feedings by half n Add 1/2 oz salt per 1 gallon water,Increase aeration.
> 1ppm : Perform 50 % water change, Retest after water change, if not below 1.0, change water again.
http://freshaquarium.about.com/cs/biologicalcycle/a/nitrogencycle_3.htm
Ammonia Poisoning
Disease Type:
Environmental
Cause: Unionized Ammonia (NH3)
Description:
Ammonia poisoning is one of the biggest killers of aquarium fish. It occurs most often when a tank is newly set up. However, it can also occur in an established tank when too many new fish have been added at one time, when the filter fails due to power or mechanical failure, or if bacterial colonies die off due to the use of medications or sudden change in water conditions.
Symptoms:
# Fish gasp for breath at the water surface
# Purple or red gills
# Fish is lethargic
# Loss of appetite
# Fish lays at the bottom of the tank
# Red streaking on the fins or body
Ammonia poisoning can happen suddenly, or over a period of days. Initially the fish may be seen gasping at the surface for air. The gills will begin to turn red or lilac in color, and may appear to be bleeding. The fish will being to lose its appetite and become increasingly lethargic. In some cases fish may be observed laying at the bottom of the tank with clamped fins.
As the damage from the ammonia poisoning continues, the tissues will be damaged as evidenced by red streaks or bloody patches that appear on the body and fins. Internal damage is occurring to the brain, organs, and central nervous system. The fish begins to hemorrhage internally and externally, and eventually dies.
Treatment:
# Lower pH below 7.0
# 25 - 50% water change
# Use chemical to neutralize ammonia
# Discontinue or reduce feeding
If the ammonia level rises above 1 ppm as measured by a standard test kit, begin treatment immediately. Lowering the pH of the water will provide immediate relief, as will a 50% water change (be sure to use water that is the same temperature as the aquarium). Several water changes within a short period of time may be required to drop the ammonia to below 1 ppm.
If the fish are in severe distress, the use of a chemical to neutralize the ammonia is recommended. Feedings should be restricted so that additional waste is reduced. In cases of very high ammonia levels, feedings should be discontinued for several days. No new fish should be added until the tank until the ammonia and nitrite levels have fallen to zero.
Because ammonia toxicity is linked to the pH, testing of both ammonia and pH levels are critical. Ammonia becomes increasingly toxic as the pH rises above 7.0. Because there are so many variables, there is no magic number to watch for. However, there are general guidelines to follow.
At a level of level of 1 ppm or 1 mg/l, fish are under stress, even if they don't appear in acute distress. Levels even lower than that can be fatal if the fish are exposed continuously for several days. For that reason it is critical to continue daily testing and treatment until the ammonia drops to zero. When ammonia is elevated for a long period, it is not unusual to lose fish even after the ammonia levels start to drop.
Prevention:
# Stock new tanks slowly
# Feed sparingly and remove uneaten food
# Change water regularly
# Test water regularly to catch problems early
The key to avoiding fish death from ammonia poisoning is to avoid ammonia spikes in the first place. When starting a new tank, add only a couple of fish initially and do not add more until the tank is completely cycled. Even in an well established tank, only add a couple of new fish at a time and avoid overstocking. Feed fish small quantities of foods, and remove any food not consumed in five minutes. Clean the tank weekly, taking care to remove an dead plants or other debris. Perform a partial water change at least every other week, more often in small heavily stocked tanks. Test the water for ammonia at least twice a month to detect problems before they become serious. Anytime a fish appears to be ill, test for ammonia to rule out ammonia poisoning. If the filter stops, test for ammonia twenty-four hours later to ensure that the bacterial colonies that eliminate wastes were not affected.
Environmental
Cause: Unionized Ammonia (NH3)
Description:
Ammonia poisoning is one of the biggest killers of aquarium fish. It occurs most often when a tank is newly set up. However, it can also occur in an established tank when too many new fish have been added at one time, when the filter fails due to power or mechanical failure, or if bacterial colonies die off due to the use of medications or sudden change in water conditions.
Symptoms:
# Fish gasp for breath at the water surface
# Purple or red gills
# Fish is lethargic
# Loss of appetite
# Fish lays at the bottom of the tank
# Red streaking on the fins or body
Ammonia poisoning can happen suddenly, or over a period of days. Initially the fish may be seen gasping at the surface for air. The gills will begin to turn red or lilac in color, and may appear to be bleeding. The fish will being to lose its appetite and become increasingly lethargic. In some cases fish may be observed laying at the bottom of the tank with clamped fins.
As the damage from the ammonia poisoning continues, the tissues will be damaged as evidenced by red streaks or bloody patches that appear on the body and fins. Internal damage is occurring to the brain, organs, and central nervous system. The fish begins to hemorrhage internally and externally, and eventually dies.
Treatment:
# Lower pH below 7.0
# 25 - 50% water change
# Use chemical to neutralize ammonia
# Discontinue or reduce feeding
If the ammonia level rises above 1 ppm as measured by a standard test kit, begin treatment immediately. Lowering the pH of the water will provide immediate relief, as will a 50% water change (be sure to use water that is the same temperature as the aquarium). Several water changes within a short period of time may be required to drop the ammonia to below 1 ppm.
If the fish are in severe distress, the use of a chemical to neutralize the ammonia is recommended. Feedings should be restricted so that additional waste is reduced. In cases of very high ammonia levels, feedings should be discontinued for several days. No new fish should be added until the tank until the ammonia and nitrite levels have fallen to zero.
Because ammonia toxicity is linked to the pH, testing of both ammonia and pH levels are critical. Ammonia becomes increasingly toxic as the pH rises above 7.0. Because there are so many variables, there is no magic number to watch for. However, there are general guidelines to follow.
At a level of level of 1 ppm or 1 mg/l, fish are under stress, even if they don't appear in acute distress. Levels even lower than that can be fatal if the fish are exposed continuously for several days. For that reason it is critical to continue daily testing and treatment until the ammonia drops to zero. When ammonia is elevated for a long period, it is not unusual to lose fish even after the ammonia levels start to drop.
Prevention:
# Stock new tanks slowly
# Feed sparingly and remove uneaten food
# Change water regularly
# Test water regularly to catch problems early
The key to avoiding fish death from ammonia poisoning is to avoid ammonia spikes in the first place. When starting a new tank, add only a couple of fish initially and do not add more until the tank is completely cycled. Even in an well established tank, only add a couple of new fish at a time and avoid overstocking. Feed fish small quantities of foods, and remove any food not consumed in five minutes. Clean the tank weekly, taking care to remove an dead plants or other debris. Perform a partial water change at least every other week, more often in small heavily stocked tanks. Test the water for ammonia at least twice a month to detect problems before they become serious. Anytime a fish appears to be ill, test for ammonia to rule out ammonia poisoning. If the filter stops, test for ammonia twenty-four hours later to ensure that the bacterial colonies that eliminate wastes were not affected.
Nitrite Poisoning
Disease Type:
Environmental
Cause: Nitrite
Names: Brown Blood Disease, Nitrite Poisoning
Description:
Nitrite poisoning follows closely on the heels of ammonia as a major killer of aquarium fish. Just when you think you are home free after losing half your fish to ammonia poisoning, the nitrites rise and put your fish at risk again. Anytime ammonia levels are elevated, elevated nitrites will soon follow. To avoid nitrite poisoning, test when setting up a new tank, when adding new fish to established an tank, when the filter fails due to power or mechanical failure, and when medicating sick fish.
Symptoms:
# Fish gasp for breath at the water surface
# Fish hang near water outlets
# Fish is listless
# Tan or brown gills
# Rapid gill movement
Also known as 'brown blood disease' because the blood turns brown from a increase of methemoglobin. However, methemoglobin causes a more serious problem than changing the color of the blood. It renders the blood unable to carry oxygen, and the fish can literally suffocate even though there is ample oxygen present in the water.
Different species of fish tolerate differing levels of nitrite. Some fish may simply be listless, while others may die suddenly with no obvious signs of illness. Common symptoms include gasping at the surface of the water, hanging near water outlets, rapid gill movement, and a change in gill color from tan to dark brown.
Fish that are exposed to even low levels of nitrite for long periods of time suffer damage to their immune system and are prone to secondary diseases, such as ich, fin rot, and bacterial infections. As methemoglobin levels increase damage occurs to the liver, gills and blood cells. If untreated, affected fish eventually die from lack of oxygen, and/or secondary diseases.
Treatment:
# Large water change
# Add salt, preferably chlorine salt
# Reduce feeding
# Increase aeration
The addition of one half ounce of salt per gallon of water will prevent methemoglobin from building up. Chlorine salt is preferable, however any aquarium salt is better than no salt at all. Aeration should be increased to provide ample oxygen saturation in the water. Feedings should be reduced and no new fish should be added until the tank until the ammonia and nitrite levels have fallen to zero.
Nitrite is letal at much lower levels than ammonia. Therefore it is critical to continue daily testing and treatment until the nitrite falls to zero.
Prevention:
# Stock new tanks slowly
# Feed sparingly and remove uneaten food
# Change water regularly
# Test water regularly to catch problems early
The key to elminating fish death is to avoid extreme spikes and prolonged elevation of nitrites. When starting a new tank, add only a couple of fish initially and do not add more until the tank is completely cycled. In an established tank, only add a couple of new fish at a time and avoid overstocking.
Feed fish small quantities of foods, and remove any food not consumed in five minutes. Clean the tank weekly, taking care to remove an dead plants or other debris. Perform a partial water change at least every other week, more often in small heavily stocked tanks. Always test the water for nitrite after an ammonia spike has occured as there will be a nitrite increase later.
Environmental
Cause: Nitrite
Names: Brown Blood Disease, Nitrite Poisoning
Description:
Nitrite poisoning follows closely on the heels of ammonia as a major killer of aquarium fish. Just when you think you are home free after losing half your fish to ammonia poisoning, the nitrites rise and put your fish at risk again. Anytime ammonia levels are elevated, elevated nitrites will soon follow. To avoid nitrite poisoning, test when setting up a new tank, when adding new fish to established an tank, when the filter fails due to power or mechanical failure, and when medicating sick fish.
Symptoms:
# Fish gasp for breath at the water surface
# Fish hang near water outlets
# Fish is listless
# Tan or brown gills
# Rapid gill movement
Also known as 'brown blood disease' because the blood turns brown from a increase of methemoglobin. However, methemoglobin causes a more serious problem than changing the color of the blood. It renders the blood unable to carry oxygen, and the fish can literally suffocate even though there is ample oxygen present in the water.
Different species of fish tolerate differing levels of nitrite. Some fish may simply be listless, while others may die suddenly with no obvious signs of illness. Common symptoms include gasping at the surface of the water, hanging near water outlets, rapid gill movement, and a change in gill color from tan to dark brown.
Fish that are exposed to even low levels of nitrite for long periods of time suffer damage to their immune system and are prone to secondary diseases, such as ich, fin rot, and bacterial infections. As methemoglobin levels increase damage occurs to the liver, gills and blood cells. If untreated, affected fish eventually die from lack of oxygen, and/or secondary diseases.
Treatment:
# Large water change
# Add salt, preferably chlorine salt
# Reduce feeding
# Increase aeration
The addition of one half ounce of salt per gallon of water will prevent methemoglobin from building up. Chlorine salt is preferable, however any aquarium salt is better than no salt at all. Aeration should be increased to provide ample oxygen saturation in the water. Feedings should be reduced and no new fish should be added until the tank until the ammonia and nitrite levels have fallen to zero.
Nitrite is letal at much lower levels than ammonia. Therefore it is critical to continue daily testing and treatment until the nitrite falls to zero.
Prevention:
# Stock new tanks slowly
# Feed sparingly and remove uneaten food
# Change water regularly
# Test water regularly to catch problems early
The key to elminating fish death is to avoid extreme spikes and prolonged elevation of nitrites. When starting a new tank, add only a couple of fish initially and do not add more until the tank is completely cycled. In an established tank, only add a couple of new fish at a time and avoid overstocking.
Feed fish small quantities of foods, and remove any food not consumed in five minutes. Clean the tank weekly, taking care to remove an dead plants or other debris. Perform a partial water change at least every other week, more often in small heavily stocked tanks. Always test the water for nitrite after an ammonia spike has occured as there will be a nitrite increase later.
Salt In Freshwater Tank
Salt
Contrary to popular view, it is not advisable to add salt to your aquarium on an ongoing basis unless the fish require brackish water. But it can be quite beneficial when used at the right time. It's not a bad idea to use short-term when helping fish ward off secondary diseases or when hoping to prevent them (such as after a location change, etc). It is also an effective treatment for certain problems:
As a cure for fungus, or to help relieving swelling, use can use a tablespoon of salt per gallon.
Use sodium chloride (Aquarium, rock, or kosher Salt) for fungus;
use magnesium sulfate (Epson Salt) for internal swelling or constipation.
These are appropriate concentrations for short term dips intended to last from 5-10 minutes, or up to 30 at longest. Use a teaspoon per gallon if you want to add this to the fish's tank as a live-in bath: change 25% of the water weekly and do not add additional salt.
The simple answer is that bettas do not like much salt in their water. Bettas will tolerate a certain amount of salt in their water; however, there is a limit. Salt will change the flow of water due to a change in the concentration. All fish will tolerate salt to some degree, but when there's too much they will dehydrate due to water flowing out of the creature. Saltwater fish have kidneys that allow them to expel excess salt while retaining their water. Freshwater fish do the opposite - they expel water because of the concentration gradient.
When using salt, you should use it for specific problems or needs. If you don't know when it's right, do some research. For example, FishEnthusiast.com notes that:
"Salt puts electrolytes in the water that stimulate production of the mucus coating that protects fish from infection. At the same time, it alters the chemical balance of the water, usually increasing the pH. Salt also helps inhibit bacterial growth at least the kind that seem to cause algal blooms in freshwater aquariums."
Salt assists in the healing of injuries, promotes formation of slime coating, improves gill function, reduces the buildup of nitrite (useful when setting up new tanks: 1/2 ounce of salt per gallon), and is effective against some parasites. However, it is a double-edged sword; there are also some downfalls. For example, some plants and fish species cannot tolorate salt. This yet another reason you should do a little research before treating a problem. It is NOT advised to use salt with scaleless fish, particularly cordydoras. These species are particularly sensitive to salt, and even a small amount can harm them. Also, tetras are fairly sensitive to salt.
Extra note : Constipation
Constipation
Description:
Constipation is a fairly common problem with fish. It can occur due to lack of variety in diet. The fish's stomach will be swollen due to its inability to defecate. This may cause problems with buoyancy (similar to swim bladder disorder, where the fish is unable to swim properly and floats at the surface). Initially it is not dangerous to the fish but after several days secondary problems can occur: bacterial infection, damage to the swim bladder, or internal fluid leakage.
Treatment:
Fast the fish for about 3 days. The lack of food will give the fish's stomach time to process and purge, allowing its swelling to go down. At the end of the third day, if the fish is still having difficulty, it may require a longer fasting period. A betta can, at extreme, survive for a month without food (this is part of natural survival technique) so do not fear not feeding your betta for a few days. They are very durable fish. At the end of the fasting period, if you really want to ensure the system is flushed out, you can feed a bite-size portion of a cooked and de-shelled green pea to the fish. Or, daphnia can work as a natural laxative. This, too, will help to purge out the system.
Giving the fish a soak in a salt bath can also work as a laxative.
Prevention:
Vary the fish's diet more. Provide enough plant material, or with carnivores feed more live/frozen foods and less processed foods. Skipping feeding one day a week may be beneficial, as can eliminating pelleted food and also adding daphnia to their diet.
Internal Swelling :
Description:
Dropsy itself is not a disease, but rather a result of some other cause. Dropsy is a term given to the swelling that occurs internally in the fish. There are multiple possible causes. Sometimes it's not contageous, but sick fish should be isolated and treated since determining the actual cause may be impossible, and also because this will be easier on the fish.
The fish's body will become swelled with fluid it is unable to expel. Eventually the swelling will cause the scales to raise, giving the fish what is called the "pine-cone" appearance.
Diagnosis, One of these situations may be the culprit:
* Accute Dropsy: Sudden swelling: A bacterial infection will cause internal bleeding.
* Chronic Dropsy: Slow swelling: Growing tumors, or even parasites, in the fish may cause it to swell.
* Chronic Dropsy: Slow swelling: Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Highly contageous!
* Other unknown causes, such as a virus, or permanent damage to the fish's internal organs. Damage to kidneys can occur due to over-use of medication or use of too strong of medication.
Treatment:
It is difficult to treat, but in some cases where the problem is due to bacteria, if detected early enough, it can be treated. This is why you should closely examine the fish's environment for a bacterial problem, and deal with the source of the problem as a part of treatment and preventative.
By the time the scales begin to raise, however, it is very fatal to the fish. Salt baths can help to draw the fluid out of the fish. A variety of medications can be purchased that treat dropsy, which sometimes occurs due to an internal bacterial problem. Medications for external bacterial problems only will not be effective for this problem.
Gouramies and Cyprinids are highly susceptible to this disorder.
Photos:
The beginning stages of dropsy:
Salt :
Next time your fish is sick, the remedy might not be farther away than your kitchen table. Ordinary salt is a useful remedy for the prevention and treatment of several freshwater fish diseases. It assists in the healing of injuries, promotes formation of slime coating, improves gill function, reduces the uptake of nitrite, and is effective against some parasites.
Before you go overboard using salt, be aware that some of the same benefits can be achieved by using a stress coat product. Furthermore, some plants and species fish cannot tolerate salt, so it must be used with care. In other words, salt is a double-edged sword.
When To Use Salt :
* Nitrite Poisoning - The addition of one half ounce of salt per gallon of water is beneficial in the prevention of nitrite poisoning in a newly set up tank. Keep in mind that scaleless fish cannot tolerate much, if any, salt.
* Parasites - Many parasites can be effectively treated with the use of salt, particularly Costia infestations.
When Not To Use Salt
* Live plants - If you live plants in your aquarium, avoid using salt. Plants can be damaged with a relatively low dosage of salt, which is one reason it's best to treat sick fish in a hospital tank rather than your regular tank.
* Scaleless fish - Scaleless fish, particularly Cordydoras, are very sensitive to salt. Even a small amount could harm them. Tetras are also somewhat sensitive to salt.
Contrary to popular view, it is not advisable to add salt to your aquarium on an ongoing basis unless the fish require brackish water conditions.
Type and Quantity of Salt
Common table salt is suitable, however it should be non-iodized and contain no additives. Rock or Kosher salt are excellent choices, as they are straight sodium chloride with nothing else added.
The quantity will depend on how and what it is used for. A dip is a short exposure that is useful for the eradication of parasites. For dips a 3% solution is generally used for up to a half hour.
Baths are essentially treating the entire tank, and are useful for treatment of stress, nitrite poisoning, as well as some parasites. Salt concentrations for a bath are lower, 1% or less, and are used for up to three weeks.
Performing a Dip
When treating parasites, a dip is the method of choice. Place four teaspoons of salt in a clean bucket, then slowly add one gallon of water from the aquarium, swirling it to dissolve the salt. Once the salt is completely dissolved, place the fish in the bucket for five to thirty minutes. Observe the fish closely, and if any signs of distress are observed, return the fish to the original aquarium immediately.
Performing a Bath
A bath is ideal when treating an entire tank for prevention of nitrite poisoning, or for reduction of stress.
For stress treatment, measure out one teaspoon of salt for each gallon if water in the tank. Using a small container, dissolve the salt in a small quantity of water taken from the tank. Once it is completely dissolved, slowly add the solution to the to the tank.
For treatment and prevention of nitrite poisoning, measure out three teaspoons of salt for each gallon of water in the tank. Using a small container, dissolve the salt in a small quantity of water taken from the tank. Once it is completely dissolved, slowly add the solution to the tank.
When using bath treatments, weekly water changes of 25% should begin one week after initial treatment. Do not add additional salt once bath treatments have begun.
Contrary to popular view, it is not advisable to add salt to your aquarium on an ongoing basis unless the fish require brackish water. But it can be quite beneficial when used at the right time. It's not a bad idea to use short-term when helping fish ward off secondary diseases or when hoping to prevent them (such as after a location change, etc). It is also an effective treatment for certain problems:
As a cure for fungus, or to help relieving swelling, use can use a tablespoon of salt per gallon.
Use sodium chloride (Aquarium, rock, or kosher Salt) for fungus;
use magnesium sulfate (Epson Salt) for internal swelling or constipation.
These are appropriate concentrations for short term dips intended to last from 5-10 minutes, or up to 30 at longest. Use a teaspoon per gallon if you want to add this to the fish's tank as a live-in bath: change 25% of the water weekly and do not add additional salt.
The simple answer is that bettas do not like much salt in their water. Bettas will tolerate a certain amount of salt in their water; however, there is a limit. Salt will change the flow of water due to a change in the concentration. All fish will tolerate salt to some degree, but when there's too much they will dehydrate due to water flowing out of the creature. Saltwater fish have kidneys that allow them to expel excess salt while retaining their water. Freshwater fish do the opposite - they expel water because of the concentration gradient.
When using salt, you should use it for specific problems or needs. If you don't know when it's right, do some research. For example, FishEnthusiast.com notes that:
"Salt puts electrolytes in the water that stimulate production of the mucus coating that protects fish from infection. At the same time, it alters the chemical balance of the water, usually increasing the pH. Salt also helps inhibit bacterial growth at least the kind that seem to cause algal blooms in freshwater aquariums."
Salt assists in the healing of injuries, promotes formation of slime coating, improves gill function, reduces the buildup of nitrite (useful when setting up new tanks: 1/2 ounce of salt per gallon), and is effective against some parasites. However, it is a double-edged sword; there are also some downfalls. For example, some plants and fish species cannot tolorate salt. This yet another reason you should do a little research before treating a problem. It is NOT advised to use salt with scaleless fish, particularly cordydoras. These species are particularly sensitive to salt, and even a small amount can harm them. Also, tetras are fairly sensitive to salt.
Extra note : Constipation
Constipation
Description:
Constipation is a fairly common problem with fish. It can occur due to lack of variety in diet. The fish's stomach will be swollen due to its inability to defecate. This may cause problems with buoyancy (similar to swim bladder disorder, where the fish is unable to swim properly and floats at the surface). Initially it is not dangerous to the fish but after several days secondary problems can occur: bacterial infection, damage to the swim bladder, or internal fluid leakage.
Treatment:
Fast the fish for about 3 days. The lack of food will give the fish's stomach time to process and purge, allowing its swelling to go down. At the end of the third day, if the fish is still having difficulty, it may require a longer fasting period. A betta can, at extreme, survive for a month without food (this is part of natural survival technique) so do not fear not feeding your betta for a few days. They are very durable fish. At the end of the fasting period, if you really want to ensure the system is flushed out, you can feed a bite-size portion of a cooked and de-shelled green pea to the fish. Or, daphnia can work as a natural laxative. This, too, will help to purge out the system.
Giving the fish a soak in a salt bath can also work as a laxative.
Prevention:
Vary the fish's diet more. Provide enough plant material, or with carnivores feed more live/frozen foods and less processed foods. Skipping feeding one day a week may be beneficial, as can eliminating pelleted food and also adding daphnia to their diet.
Internal Swelling :
Description:
Dropsy itself is not a disease, but rather a result of some other cause. Dropsy is a term given to the swelling that occurs internally in the fish. There are multiple possible causes. Sometimes it's not contageous, but sick fish should be isolated and treated since determining the actual cause may be impossible, and also because this will be easier on the fish.
The fish's body will become swelled with fluid it is unable to expel. Eventually the swelling will cause the scales to raise, giving the fish what is called the "pine-cone" appearance.
Diagnosis, One of these situations may be the culprit:
* Accute Dropsy: Sudden swelling: A bacterial infection will cause internal bleeding.
* Chronic Dropsy: Slow swelling: Growing tumors, or even parasites, in the fish may cause it to swell.
* Chronic Dropsy: Slow swelling: Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Highly contageous!
* Other unknown causes, such as a virus, or permanent damage to the fish's internal organs. Damage to kidneys can occur due to over-use of medication or use of too strong of medication.
Treatment:
It is difficult to treat, but in some cases where the problem is due to bacteria, if detected early enough, it can be treated. This is why you should closely examine the fish's environment for a bacterial problem, and deal with the source of the problem as a part of treatment and preventative.
By the time the scales begin to raise, however, it is very fatal to the fish. Salt baths can help to draw the fluid out of the fish. A variety of medications can be purchased that treat dropsy, which sometimes occurs due to an internal bacterial problem. Medications for external bacterial problems only will not be effective for this problem.
Gouramies and Cyprinids are highly susceptible to this disorder.
Photos:
The beginning stages of dropsy:
Salt :
Next time your fish is sick, the remedy might not be farther away than your kitchen table. Ordinary salt is a useful remedy for the prevention and treatment of several freshwater fish diseases. It assists in the healing of injuries, promotes formation of slime coating, improves gill function, reduces the uptake of nitrite, and is effective against some parasites.
Before you go overboard using salt, be aware that some of the same benefits can be achieved by using a stress coat product. Furthermore, some plants and species fish cannot tolerate salt, so it must be used with care. In other words, salt is a double-edged sword.
When To Use Salt :
* Nitrite Poisoning - The addition of one half ounce of salt per gallon of water is beneficial in the prevention of nitrite poisoning in a newly set up tank. Keep in mind that scaleless fish cannot tolerate much, if any, salt.
* Parasites - Many parasites can be effectively treated with the use of salt, particularly Costia infestations.
When Not To Use Salt
* Live plants - If you live plants in your aquarium, avoid using salt. Plants can be damaged with a relatively low dosage of salt, which is one reason it's best to treat sick fish in a hospital tank rather than your regular tank.
* Scaleless fish - Scaleless fish, particularly Cordydoras, are very sensitive to salt. Even a small amount could harm them. Tetras are also somewhat sensitive to salt.
Contrary to popular view, it is not advisable to add salt to your aquarium on an ongoing basis unless the fish require brackish water conditions.
Type and Quantity of Salt
Common table salt is suitable, however it should be non-iodized and contain no additives. Rock or Kosher salt are excellent choices, as they are straight sodium chloride with nothing else added.
The quantity will depend on how and what it is used for. A dip is a short exposure that is useful for the eradication of parasites. For dips a 3% solution is generally used for up to a half hour.
Baths are essentially treating the entire tank, and are useful for treatment of stress, nitrite poisoning, as well as some parasites. Salt concentrations for a bath are lower, 1% or less, and are used for up to three weeks.
Performing a Dip
When treating parasites, a dip is the method of choice. Place four teaspoons of salt in a clean bucket, then slowly add one gallon of water from the aquarium, swirling it to dissolve the salt. Once the salt is completely dissolved, place the fish in the bucket for five to thirty minutes. Observe the fish closely, and if any signs of distress are observed, return the fish to the original aquarium immediately.
Performing a Bath
A bath is ideal when treating an entire tank for prevention of nitrite poisoning, or for reduction of stress.
For stress treatment, measure out one teaspoon of salt for each gallon if water in the tank. Using a small container, dissolve the salt in a small quantity of water taken from the tank. Once it is completely dissolved, slowly add the solution to the to the tank.
For treatment and prevention of nitrite poisoning, measure out three teaspoons of salt for each gallon of water in the tank. Using a small container, dissolve the salt in a small quantity of water taken from the tank. Once it is completely dissolved, slowly add the solution to the tank.
When using bath treatments, weekly water changes of 25% should begin one week after initial treatment. Do not add additional salt once bath treatments have begun.
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